This thesis considers the 'spirits of governing' that currently frame youth justice approaches to Samoan youth offending in New Zealand, today. It claims that, in the current management of Samoan youth offending cases, three main spirits of governing are in play. These are the spirits of neo-liberal risk management cultural appropriateness, and faaSamoa. All three spirits operate simultaneously, in multilayered and intersecting ways. Gaining insight into this complexity is critical to building an understanding of the points of tension that may arise in the operationalisation of 'culturally appropriate' youth justice policies in the case of Samoan youth offenders. To highlight the complex character of these spirits of governing and their relationships, the thesis first describes each spirit of governing and then considers how they compete, intersect and/or diverge through a close analysis of seven youth justice cases. Analysis of each of the seven cases is based on interviews with a Samoan youth offender, a family representative, their CYFS social worker, police youth aid officer, Youth Court youth advocate and a community intervention programme worker. The key sites of government examined in this work are those of the family, the Youth Court, the youth justice family group conference and a community intervention programme service. The thesis reveals that to gain nuanced understanding of the complexities of managing a Samoan youth offender case, it is not simply a question of knowing what 'spirits of governing' are at play, one also needs to examine how they play. I contend that these three 'spirits' have specific relationships with each other. In youth justice, neo-liberalism opened up space for cultural appropriateness which, in turn allowed for the circulation of the faaSamoa. These three 'spirits', however, can not be reduced to each other because of their differing understanding of governmental strategies, techniques and subjects. In particular, they differ on their understanding of the role of families, of collaboration and of cultural expertise. Consequently, for example, while these three 'spirits of governing' 'agree' on the value of cultural appropriateness, they do not 'agree' on how it should be defined and measured. Too often when politically sensitive programmes or policies, such as those involving ethnic-specific cases, do not work, the response from politicians and programme personnel alike is to couch their failures in overly simplistic terms. This work seeks to indicate the importance of developing culturally nuanced models of analysis that can engage in the complexities of governing across cultural divides, in the improvement of practice in the field and in the development of a sociology capable of enhancing cross-cultural understanding.

The daily journey to work has become one of the most important and conspicuous charactaristics of the urban community. Each work day, as regularly as clockwork between the hours of 7 and 9 in the morning, thousands of commuters travel to their places of work. Just as regularly, between 4 and 6 in the afte:rnoon 5 they return en masse to their homes. In fact, in cities where trro1sport surveys have been made, it has been revealed that journeys to work account for between one-sixth and one-third of all vehicular trips. In Metropolitan Aucland (Map I)? work trips comprise some 24 per cent of the trips recorded by a comprehensive transport survey. In Auckland, as in other cities of the western world, only trips to home are more numerous than those to work.

This thesis looks at the way the historical oppression of women in capitalist society is reproduced through a continuing gender division of labour at home and in the workplace. Women's primary responsibility for domestic labour in the home both defines and disadvantages them in the labour market. I argue that changing women's inferior status under capitalism depends on women organising for equality in the labour market. I develop the argument around women's status by looking at the way state activity shaped the conditions for social reproduction in the post-war period of capitalist growth followed by the onset of economic decline and state restructuring in New Zealand. I take a classical Marxist political economy approach to explain the end of the post-war boom as a 'structural crisis' of falling profits requiring the state to act for capital by establishing the conditions for the market to 'restructure' production to restore the conditions for profitability. The thesis focuses on the reduction of state welfare provision which impacted on women both as domestic labourers and wage labourers. These measures generated opposition. First, government's proposal for domestic purpose beneficiaries to undertake 'workfare' signaled a (failed) attempt to propel these women into work as a reserve army of labour and out of their primary role as domestic labourers supported by the state. Second, reducing state spending on the 'social wage' impacted directly on women workers in state sector areas of education and health. I interviewed women teachers who were active in their unions in resisting the pressures of reform and defending their jobs. The most politically conscious teachers were Marxists who agitated to advance workers from a trade union consciousness to a class consciousness. They understood that the union struggle was a class struggle of workers against a capitalist class on the offensive. They challenged union bureaucrats in accommodating to this. In their interventions, these women demonstrated the possibilities for overcoming gender inequality not through separatist strategies or liberal reforms that leave capitalist structures intact but through the transformative potential of union struggle for the 'socialist project'.

This dissertation considers the images and appraisals of New Zealand in the period 1839 to 1855. The expectations of British emigrants were examined in terms of the information available about New Zealand, the nature, accessibility and dissemination of information, and the images about the new environment created in the accessible sources of information. These expectations, largely drawn from the images, are compared with the appraisals made by the emigrants after arrival and settlement. The dissertation was developed at three levels: as an historical geography using a cognitive-behavioural approach, being concerned with the relationships between information, images, and appraisals, and examining a specific process - emigration to New Zealand from 1839 to 1855. In light of the recent anxiety and pessimism over the future and direction of historical geography, the use of new concepts and methodologies has been regarded as a necessity. While there are many problems and complexities inherent in the use of a cognitive-behavioural approach to historical geography, the concepts of perception, image, and appraisal offer much to the understanding of how man evaluated and behaved in the world of the past. It is suggested that the use of relevant cognitive-behavioural ideas broadens the areas for research by offering a new perspective to the past and by encouraging the use of much previously unused material. The second concern was the relationship between information and image and between image and appraisal. The role of information was found to be most important in the development of images about the new environment. The appraisals also reflected the information contained within the images. It was suggested that it is impossible to reconstruct images of the environment in their totality but that it is possible to reconstruct simpler sub-images of specific features in the environment. It is in this manner that the historical geographer can make a major contribution to the understanding of man’s behaviour, in relation to the geography of past times. The third concern was with the process of emigration to New Zealand in the period 1839 to 1855. Although much information about New Zealand was available, the intending emigrants had access only to limited sources of information, much of which was promotional in nature. The images of the physical environment were largely drawn from these sources. These images appear to have been the basis of the expectations of most of the emigrants. The later appraisals made of the physical environment showed a close relationship to the images, although several discrepancies occurred. These discrepancies reflected the distortion of information, the role of imagination and the personal evaluations of different sources of information. Emigration to New Zealand in the period 1839 to 1855 was, therefore, examined in terms of the images and appraisals made of the new environment. While general satisfaction with the new homeland was expressed, few of the emigrants considered New Zealand to be an ‘Eden of the South Seas’.

Rural population growth has emerged in the 1970s as an important trend in many developed countries, including New Zealand. Increasing emphasis is also currently being accorded to the consideration of institutions and institutional factors in geographical research. This thesis develops the themes of population growth and institutions in rural areas and isolates institutional response as a relevant component in the overall growth process. Analysis of rural population growth in the study area of Thames-Coromandel provides the background context to the investigation of response by health, education and statutory planning institutions. The analysis itself reveals the dominance of inward migration in the growth process, the nucleated nature of much of the growth and major explanations relating to retirement and recreation development together with agricultural intensification and alternative lifestyle and craft industry development. Institutional response by the Hamilton Education Board and Thames Hospital Board is shown to be embedded in a complex web of constraints and determinants. However a definite expansion of services and facilities is clearly evident in the context of the demonstrated growth. Conversely the statutory planning response by the Thames-Coromandel District Council has tended to display a general lack of adequacy to date in the proper management of growth and development in the study area. Overall, the study provides both theoretical and practical insights into population growth and institutional response in rural areas and presents a basis for further research in this contemporary field of geographical study.

In this dissertation it is argued that humans constitute themselves as subjects in a complex of interrelationships between body, self, and society, The effects of these interrelationships are examined through the ways in which traumatic paraplegics constitute themselves as subjects following their accidents. Subsequent to paralysis there is a radical break in how paraplegics experience their bodies, in what they are physically able to do, and in the ways in which their bodies are interpreted socially, assigned meanings, and allocated space in which to do and be. Experiential accounts of paraplegia are presented as a means to exploring the implications of these changes in the ways paraplegics constitute themselves as subjects.

Organisations operate in an environment buffeted by social change. Child sexual abuse became publicly recognised as a social problem from 1986. The first part of this thesis examines public awareness of, and interest in child sexual abuse, how child sexual abuse arose in New Zealand, the influence of international "moral entrepreneurs" in shaping this recognition and the activities of local "moral entrepreneurs"' including some police officers, in assisting the move of child sexual abuse from the private to the public arena. The second part of this thesis examines organisational change and whether the causes for organisational change are environmentally or managerially driven. Or is it, as this thesis suggests a combination of both. This thesis takes these theoretical arguments and applies them to the process of organisational change that occurred in the New Zealand Police Department, from the development and implementation of the National Abuse Policy for the investigation of child sexual abuse and serious physical abuse. The third part of this thesis examines the interlinking between the main theoretical foci, organisational change and the construction of a social problem. The results of an investigation from key staff, Police and other agency personnel, from seven New Zealand Police Department Districts, interviewed in three waves over a two and a half year period, are reported. The total number of key staff from each wave was 93, 80 and 68. The results of the first part of the thesis is that through effective lobbying by the women's movement and child protection groups child sexual abuse has become a recognised social problem. In the second part of the thesis the following were found to be crucial factors in the shaping of organisational responses to child sexual abuse: The role of middle managers in the implementation of organisational change policies in assigning or not assigning appropriate resources. The role of the top management in the ownership of organisational change policies the procedures. Continual staff turnover and the policy of staff rotation limited the successful implementation and continued support for the National Abuse Policy. This factor, staff turn over and/or rotation, will impact on the success of any organisational change policy. The extent of the training provisions for police officers at all levels within the organisation and the maintenance of that training at a national and district level. Acceptance of the multidisciplinary investigative approach which differed from more traditional policing approaches. The internal and external pressure on the Police to implement and maintain a high profile response in the child sexual abuse field. The results of the third part of the thesis is that the Police Department played a role in the public recognition of child sexual abuse as a social problem and as a result had to implement an operational response through the development of a National Abuse Policy.

The deviance and alcohol literatures do not theorise expectations about minimum levels of alcohol consumption in any significant detail. Nor do they develop the notion that drinking less than is expected can be defined as a form of deviance. In response to this gap in the literature this thesis introduces and elaborates the concept of "underconsumption", defined briefly as the violation of minimum drinking norms. The thesis is also concerned to describe the key processes through which minimum drinking norms are produced and reproduced in social occasions' to demonstrate the public health significance of minimum drinking norms, and to provide evidence for the reality of "underconsumption" as a form of deviance in New Zealand society. Empirical research relied on face-to-face interviews, phone interviews, and postal surveys of 113 men - most of them abstainers or "light" drinkers. The main rationale was that likely violators of minimum drinking norms would be the most likely to have noticed and remembered the expression of minimum drinking norms. Transcripts and questionnaires were analysed with the assistance of qualitative database software. An important finding was that minimum drinking norms are in evidence throughout a broad cross-section of New Zealand society. It was also concluded that two of the main processes through which minimum drinking norms are produced and reproduced - people's reactions to abstention and lighter drinking styles and alcohol-centred hosting practices - continue to be in evidence. The relevant reactions and practices were also identified in a wide range of social groups. Furthermore, the case was presented that minimum drinking norms have potentially negative consequences for both individual "underdrinkers" and for societal levels of alcohol-related problems. These findings have important implications for the public health community and it is suggested that reference to a developed theory of "under-consumption" may have potential benefits for the planning of public health strategies and for public health policy. This research can also be seen to contribute to the alcohol literature, the deviance literature on alcohol, and the broader sociological literature on deviance. In the latter case, the analysis of "underconsumption" is most valuable by virtue of its status as "beneficial deviance".

This thesis describes the process of concentration and centralisation of the top New Zealand corporate class fraction at three levels - the corporate agent, the corporate agency and the corporate structure. These three different perspectives are seen, first, at the level of the empirical evidence of concentration and centralisation over time, and second, at the level of theoretical explanation and lastly, at the level of the sociology of knowledge, that is, how the theories themselves locate within economic cycles. The two empirical bases of this study are the survey of the top thirty companies directors and the top thirty companies networks of.1966, 1976 and 1986. A centrality analysis used on the latter three data sources, found that at the peak of the longwave (1966) when accumulation was high within the protected New Zealand economy, there were few corporate interlocks, suggesting that centralisation (the destruction of already formed capitals) was not a problem. But by the economic downturn (1986) corporate interlocks had proliferated reflecting the insecure nature of the corporate economy in crisis. The main conclusions drawn from the survey and the centralisation data sources positively corroborate the Marxist thesis that the corporate class fraction (as agents of capitalism) are in a free market economy as much directive as reactive to the state, that banks operate at direct and indirect levels of intervention on this class fraction and that there is some evidence of corporate class cohesion.

This study examines the influence of an extension agency, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Advisory Services Division, in stimulating the diffusion of innovations among farmers in New Zealand. Consideration of the Farm Advisory Officers’ objectives and the rationale for their extension strategies provides a background for investigating and accounting for their use of different techniques. The effectiveness of these techniques is examined, within the framework of an adoption-stimulation model. The use of information sources, knowledge of a promoted innovation, attitudes to the need for the innovation, and adoption behaviour among farmers in the northern King Country are explored, to identify the relationships between these stages in the adoption process and Farm Advisory Officers’ extension efforts. At a broader scale, a simple multiplier model is used to evaluate the effects of the distribution of extension efforts on the spread of information and innovations, especially among those farmers not directly influenced by advisers.