This thesis examines in contort the Civil Aviation Authority, a body described by some as a constitutional innovation. The accuracy of such a description is assessed and the utility of such an innovation is considered. The evolution of the CAA is described with an account of the development of civil aviation regulation in Britain and by an examination of the CAA's predecessors, the Air Transport Licensing Board and the Air Transport Advisory Council. The deficiencies of these licensing authorities are examined in order to explain the reasons for the setting up of an agency governing the selection of the CAA's framework of powers and duties. In order to see the CAL in its constitutional context an account is given of the past methods of regulation found in this country and of the CAA's relationship to other kinds of agency encountered in Britain. A model of the CAA is compared with the structure of American regulatory agencies. The Authority is then examined, in operation. It will be argued that the CAA's structure attempts to gain the best of a number of worlds in combining three factors: the use of formal public hearing procedures; subjection to ministerial control by written policy guidance; and the incorporation of extensive resources, expertise and independence. This study considers whether the above combination has proved workable, efficient and just. It asks if administrative law theory provides adequate tools to appraise such an agency and whether we find, in the CAA, a useful device of government which could be employed in other areas.

In Britain, and in the other major industrialised countries, a significant redistribution of urban population is taking place. Metropolitan.conurbations are losing population and employment to the surrounding regions, resulting in the rise to urban status of many smaller freestanding towns, and the decline of inner city areas as dominant centres of employment and population. This 'postsuburbanisation' phase of urban development has given rise to the expansion of the metropolitan hinterland, with long commuting distances, while simultaneously the cities are no longer performing their traditional role as attractors and 'seed-beds' of new jobs. The availability of played a major part process. Transport of the metropolitan central role of the of transport has in recent years been icance-by the_rising cost of energy cost of transportaccompanied by the redistribution of jobs within regions new patterns of urban development and relatively cheap transport has always in the population redistribution supply, while assisting the expansion labour market area, also weakens the conurbation. This balancing function given added significance. The resulting continuing could result in perhaps lead to,the reversal of present trends. Existing analytical methods are inappropriate for " exploring these dynamic and interactive processes. Conventional techniques are based on static frameworks;_ with highly disaggregated variables atfa fine spatial scale. Such methodologies do not reflect the interactive nature of urban processes, and they necessarily constrain the planner to a limited number of not widely different alternatives. This study is an attempt to shift the emphasis in urban modelling from the detailed description of structure to a broader description of the processes at work. This necessarily involves an explicitly dynamic modelling methodology, which is more appropriate to the description of rapid change. Two dynamic frameworks framework based on the using continuous time, framework based on the theory, using discrete calibrated for the decentralisation of increase in commuting that has taken place between 1961 and are developed: one is a theoretical logistic growth of an urban area, and the other is a modelling accounting mechanism of kinetic time. Both of these models are South-East, and describe the population from Greater London and the 1976. A range of urban policies involving transport pricing, job and housing supply are tested on these' models, and the resulting population distributions and ı commuting flows demonstrate .the usefulness to policy makers of such broad brushiprocess-descriptive models The theoretical and model1ing'frameWorks presented in this study can potentially be developed into methodol that are complementary to_existing comprehensive transportation - land use models, but at a strategic planning level.

During the 1990s, transport policy thinking in the UK underwent a fundamental paradigm shift, with policy attempting to manage rather than meet demands for car use. It is for environmental reasons that this new sustainable transport policy urges the public to reassess the positive values attached to car based mobility and to become actively involved in reductions in car use. Cultural change, active and responsible local environmental citizenship are therefore seen as being placed at the heart of transport policy. Given highly publicised resistances to car constraint measures in the rural domain, this study adopts a case study approach to understanding the ways in which people in peripheral areas of rural Scotland identify with the sustainable basis of policy and notions of responsibility and ability to reduce car use. A contrast is drawn between emphases on the need for a new travel culture in policy and the weight that theories of car dependence place on economic and material measures of reliance on the car. In taking a critical theory approach this research attempts to build on theories of car dependence and create new ways of understanding public responses to transport policy. Grounded in an appreciation of the importance of the subtle and complex nature of public consciousnesses in determining levels of car dependence, it attempts to foster an understanding of the how the social, political and cultural contexts in which transport policy is formulated and received, shape public identification with the sustainable basis of policy. How these contexts impinge upon shared understandings of responsibilities and abilities to actively participate in sustainable travel initiatives is also explored. A number of opportunities for and constraints to the development of sustainable travel in rural areas of Scotland are identified and related to Beck's (1992) thesis on 'Risk Society'. It is concluded that there is a need to widen the basis of and incorporate more flexible understandings of rurality in transport policy.

This thesis examines older drivers and navigation. Over more recent times the proportion of older people in the UK population has risen. This effect is carrying over into the driving population. Due to changing demographics, increased longevity and the increased universality of driving there will be many more older drivers than before. Older drivers find the navigation task of finding their way on unfamiliar routes very demanding due to declines in sensory and cognitive abilities. New technology such as route guidance systems could aid the older driver in this task, by reducing uncertainty when meeting decision points on the road network. However such systems can also cause distraction. This has led to concern over the safety implications of the implementation of route guidance systems into cars. If route guidance systems are to be designed safely then the characteristics and needs of the driver have to be identified. The aim of this thesis was to provide human factors knowledge in this area so that route guidance systems can be designed to meet the needs of older drivers.

While Low Cost Carriers (LCCs) are prevalent and mature in Europe and North America, the business model of LCCs has only recently started to take hold in Asia, and in recent years, more and more airlines would like to operate the LCC model on Asian region routes. The research examines whether or not LCCs are suitable for operation in Taiwan, as well as developing airline strategies in respond to some recent changes in airline market and political conditions in the country. Firstly, the research illustrates not only the current regulation and marketing situations between Taiwan and other Asian countries, but also reviews the historical data of passenger numbers and load factors of the main airlines since the year 2000. Secondly, the research surveys the views of three different interviewees, CAA Taiwan, airline executives, and passengers to analyse what they expect from an LCC. Thirdly, in order to maximise an LCC's efficiency, the research establishes a yield management system for LCCs and uses it for modifying the operation and precisely calculating operating cost. In addition, it also studies the successful and failed cases in Europe and the U. S. to understand the key points to success in a competitive market. Although the current environment in Taiwan may not be ideally suitable for LCC development, Taiwanese airlines are still able to learn how to reduce costs and improve their sales model from the experience of the LCC revolution. Moreover, the air link between Taiwan and China is likely to be a significant potential market in the future

Worldwide the human population shows an ageing demographic structure. Older people often face the danger of social exclusion; arguably more often than other age groups. Nonetheless, at least in the western world, older people are more interested in local democracy and are more likely to vote than younger people, so their decisions can be important for social policy in general, and potentially in the acceptability of road pricing. Therefore, practitioners proposing road pricing schemes need to understand particularly well the implications for older people and their attitudes towards the policy if they are to deliver effective schemes successfully. From the literature reviewed it was hypothesised that older people might ascribe more importance to collective consequences and tend to support what could be beneficial for society, a process described as ‘pro-social value orientation’. Hence in a transport context, older people may be more likely to express positive or negative attitudes to the acceptability of road pricing depending on whether they believe it would be good or bad for others, or society in general. Family, friends or more generally their significant others may also have a particular influence on older people’s evaluations about their intentions and choices – thus the importance of studying the influence of ‘social norms’ on older people’s attitudes towards road pricing. The Thesis develops a theoretical and empirical understanding of these issues, based on a secondary analysis and predominately on a two-stage primary research scheme consisting of a quantitative survey and a series of focus groups conducted in Bristol, a city that has been near the forefront of UK cities planning road pricing schemes. Robust evidence is provided for the view that the attitudes, social norms and pro-social value orientations of older people towards road pricing are different from those of younger people with those of people aged 60 to 74 being the most negative and those of people aged 75 and over the most positive ones. Finally it is justified that older people’s particular pro-social value orientations and social norms do affect their attitudes to road pricing. – mostly negatively for the people aged 60 to 74 and positively for the people aged 75 and over.

Increasing use of the private car, in part due to declining real costs, has led to a reduction in the viability of rural public transport services over recent years. Combined with an increasing recognition that transport can help tackle social exclusion and the advent of the Rural and Urban Bus Challenges, this has led to the instigation of a number of publicly funded Demand Responsive Transport (DRT) schemes in England and Wales. However the reported performance of these schemes has been variable and little is known about the interplay between their design, operation and performance. This thesis utilised the theory of Realistic Evaluation (Pawson and Tilley, 2007) to design and undertake a survey, and a number of case studies of publicly-funded DRT schemes in England and Wales, and analyse the resultant data. In particular this thesis focussed on identifying the pertinent contexts, mechanisms and outcomes that impact upon the design, operation and performance of DRT schemes in an attempt both to learn more about the processes that operate within a DRT scheme, and develop a method by which others can learn more in the future. The conclusions of this thesis are therefore twofold. Firstly they relate to the design, operation and performance of publicly-funded DRT schemes in England and Wales and highlight the importance of careful planning and implementation, and the impact of external contexts, such as geographical and human factors. Secondly they find that Realistic Evaluation can provide a useful framework to evaluate DRT schemes, and one that allows for the cumulation of evaluations in the future. However it is also noted that, in this instance, the application of the theory does not provide results of the level of detail that was predicted at the outset of the study. As a result of this research a significant contribution to knowledge has been made through the development of a baseline of data pertaining to publicly-funded DRT schemes in England and Wales, and the production and trialling of a framework for the evaluation of DRT.

The tramcar has played a significant role in the de'velopment of Britain's towns and cities. Although it mightseem obvious that transport provision and an extending housing frontier must be closely linked components of any urban growth model it is necessary to look behind the bald statistics of housebuilding and transport patronage for a meaningful appreciation of their interdependence: 'Por this reason the thesis is concerned with four aspects of historical research, namely, technological innovation in the urban transport industry (the horse, then electric, tramcar and the petrol, then diesel, bus), urban growth, political choice, and personalities. The timing and speed of technological innovation in the British urban context can be explained in terms of the self-interested motivations of several major. tramway promoters and the way in which they, and astute local political leaders, assessed the preSSUBes of demand for a better living environment. Starting in the post Napoleonic War years, this desire for suburban living permeated down through urban society. Suburbia, however, requires sev~ral attributes of its inhabitants - in the first instance sufficient income and time to spend on daily commuting. This fact alone explains the rise of the well-to-do omnibus suburbs of the 1840's and 1850's, but at least one other factor must be taken . . account of in later transport advances. Tramcars ran on -iitracks laid into the streets and the upkeep of these streets was one of the major responsibilities of local authorities. The first wave of tramw!1Y companies sought the. right to· use and maintain a section of the·public roadway for private gain and the Parliament of 1870 saw fit to grant councils the right to veto any tramway schenltu; in their area as a means of safeguarding the public interest and their own jurisdiction over public thoroughfares. This meant that in the tramway era of 1860 to 1930 any social group's ability to realise out-of-townl!ving depended not only on the range of its disposable income and tinte budgets but also on the degree to :.which it could influence and manipulate the local political process to approve new tra~~ay routes and extensions. These three preconditions for suburban living made the tramcar an essentially middle class form of transport which would only decay when the middle classes withdrew their patronage for it in the streets and their allegiance to it in the council chamber. The rise in car ownership in the 1930's witnessed .just this phenomenon and the tramcar began its disappearance from the urban scene, not because it had become an inefficient mass mover. but because its fixed lIne of motion made it incompatible with the flexible traffic flow of the private motor car. Tramways were introduced into 'Britain in 1860 and failed because the urban political mechanism was controlled by private carriage owners who were inconvenienced considerably ~·iiiby the tracks of these early tramcars. A broadening affluence and the extensions of voting power produced a similar private modo ownership in the town councils of the 1930's, and again, the tramcar was rejected

Προτού εκπονηθεί η μελέτη ενός συγκοινωνιακού έργου είναι απαραίτητη η εκπόνηση μια προμελέτης σκοπιμότητας του έργου, όπου προσδιορίζονται οι ωφέλει- ες και τα κόστη του έργου. Για τον υπολογισμό των ωφελειών καθοριστικής σημασί ας είναι ο υπολογισμός της αξίας της ανθρωποώρας. Στην παρούσα διπλωματική ερ- γασία, γίνεται προσπάθεια καθορισμού της αξία της μονάδας του χρόνου των Ελλή- νων οδηγών με χρήση εικονομετρικών μοντέλων. Για το λόγο αυτό σχεδιάστηκε και διενεργήθηκε κατάλληλο ερωτηματολόγιο που απευθύνθηκε σε 289 άτομα αντιπρο- σωπευτικού δείγματος πληθυσμού. Στο Κεφάλαιο 1 γίνεται εισαγωγή στις έννοιες της αξίας του χρόνου, τους πα- ράγοντες που επηρεάζουν την αξία του καθώς και μέθοδοι ανάλυσης για τον υπολο- γισμό του. Στο Κεφάλαιο 2 παρουσιάζονται συνοπτικά έρευνες από τη διεθνή εμπειρία. Παρουσιάζονται τόσο τα αποτελέσματα των ερευνών, όσο και η μεθοδολογία που ακολουθήθηκε, και σχολιάζονται αδυναμίες των μελετών και πιθανά σημεία βελτίω- σης αυτών. Στο Κεφάλαιο 3 παρουσιάζεται το θεωρητικό υπόβαθρο της εργασίας, ειδικό- τερα όσον αφορά τις έρευνες προτιμήσεων (δεδηλωμένων και εκδηλωμένων) και των μοντέλων ordered logit και ordered probit Στο Κεφάλαιο 4 παρουσιάζεται αναλυτικά ο σχεδιασμός του ερωτηματολογί- ου της έρευνας, η συλλογή στοιχείων και οι στατιστικές αναλύσεις του δείγματος πληθυσμού που συμμετείχε στην έρευνα. Στο Κεφάλαιο 5 γίνεται προσδιορισμός του εικονομετρικού μοντέλου που χρησιμοποιήθηκε για την εκτίμηση της αξίας του χρόνου των Ελλήνων οδηγών στις υπεραστικές μετακινήσεις και υπολογισμός των παραμέτρων του. Ο υπολογισμός της αξίας του χρόνου γίνεται αρχικά για το σύνολο του δείγματος, και στη συνέχεια για επιμέρους υποσύνολα. Για τα εικονομετρικά μοντέλα που υιοθετήθηκε, επιλέχθηκε να χρησιμοποιηθεί το μαθηματικό μοντέλο ordered probit. iv Στο τελευταίο κεφάλαιο παρατίθενται παρατηρήσεις επί της φυσικής ερμη- νείας των παραμέτρων. Τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης συγκριτικά με άλλες έρευνες της υπάρχουσας ελληνικής βιβλιογραφίας είναι παραπλήσια, οπότε η προσέγγιση που έγινε είναι σωστή. Επιπλέον από τις στατιστικές αναλύσεις του δείγματος συγκριτικά με επίσημα στατιστικά στοιχεία(Ε.Σ.Υ.Ε., Απογραφή 1991) είναι φανερό ότι το δείγ- μα παρουσιάζει πολύ καλή αντιπροσωπευτικότητα. Αξιόλογο σημείο της μελέτης εί- ναι ότι εισήχθησαν στο εικονομετρικό μοντέλο τα στοιχεία κοινωνικού περιεχομένου που συλλέχθηκαν και προσδιορίστηκε η επίδραση αυτών. Το εικονομετρικό μοντέλο που προσδιορίστηκε είναι αποτέλεσμα δοκιμών διαφορετικών τύπων και μαθηματι- κών μοντέλων logit και probit. Τέλος, προσδιορίζονται σημεία βελτίωσης του ερωτη- ματολογίου και περιορισμοί του μοντέλου. Παρατίθενται πιθανές ερευνητικές προε- κτάσεις του προτεινόμενου μοντέλου που θα οδηγήσουν στη βελτίωσή του. / -

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