In early research on L2 (second language) phonology, researchers mainly focussed on whether L2 learners can achieve ‘target-likeness’, which relates to whether or not a sound is perceived as the intended target or whether it fits into the expected IPA category as determined by trained phonetician(s). The popular model for this focus was the contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) (Lado, 1957). Later research extended the focus to judgements of ‘native-likeness’, which is the extent to which the speaker’s L2 sound production has native-like qualities. Methods such as accent rating tasks and acoustic measurements have become popular over time, together with investigations of how the results correlate with external factors which are thought to influence L2 speech learning. Well-known models such as the Speech Learning Model (SLM) (Flege, 1995) and the Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) (Best, 1995) have been very influential in this field, but are mainly based on assumptions regarding L2 learners in a naturalistic setting. The aim of this thesis is to investigate L2 English fricative production by Thai learners of English with a combination of focus on target-likeness and native-likeness through four types of analysis: impressionistic, sound identification, accent rating, and acoustic analyses. This thesis also explores external factors which may contribute to target-likeness in L2 production which is more important than native-likeness as it helps in communication between interlocutors. The L2 fricatives are divided into those that have a counterpart in Thai (/f, s/ henceforth ‘shared’ sounds) and those that do not (/v, θ, ð, z, ʃ/, henceforth ‘non-shared’). As CAH focuses on target-likeness, it predicts that shared sounds are easy to produce; SLM, on the other hand, focuses on native-likeness and predicts that shared sounds are difficult to produce. Results from the four experiments in this study show mixed results. In terms of results from impressionistic and sound identification analyses, CAH-based hypotheses accurately predict most results, which show that shared sounds are more frequently produced in a target-like manner and more accurately identified. In terms of results from the accent rating task, SLM had to be rejected in this case, as results showed that shared fricatives were more often produced in a native-like manner, unlike non-shared fricatives. In the acoustic investigation, ii differences in the realisations of L2 shared sounds supported SLM-based hypotheses in some contexts. And although SLM-based hypotheses were disconfirmed when it came to the accent rating of L2 shared and non-shared sounds, the phonetic properties of non-shared sounds in the realisations that were deemed target-like were native-like in many contexts, suggesting some L2 attainment for non-shared sounds. Taken as a whole, these results emphasise the need to focus on both target-likeness and native-likeness in investigating L2 speech production. They also imply that L1 and L2 sound comparison is context- and task-dependent.

Based on two corpora, one of Saudi learners and the other of native English speakers, this thesis investigates qualitatively and quantitatively the use of English discourse markers in the speech of advanced Saudi learners of English in the third and fourth years of undergraduate study of English and compares it to the use of discourse markers by native speakers of English. Three of the most frequently occurring discourse markers in the spoken language, namely so, you know and like, are analysed. Qualitatively, the results from the Saudi learners’ corpus show that the three discourse markers under investigation serve a variety of discourse functions. In particular, they show that native speakers of English use so and like more frequently than Saudi learners. You know is used more frequently by Saudis. These results introduce to the research field of discourse markers a new conceptualization of how non-native Saudi English language learners use discourse markers in their speech. Even though the results from the Saudi learners’ corpus show that the three discourse markers are used with a variety of discourse functions, the analysis of the textbooks shows that of the three discourse markers, so is the only one introduced. This makes it difficult to make a strong claim about the connection of the local pedagogy and the use of the discourse markers. Saudi English learners are possibly able to acquire them through their exposure to the media and through their interaction in English with their peers.

The current thesis contributes to the existing literature on politeness research and teaching English as a second language (TESOL) by investigating requests and apologies as produced by Saudi Arabic native speakers, Saudi English as a foreign language (EFL) learners, and British native speakers. Data was collected through the use of discourse completion test questionnaires from 160 university students. Participants were divided into six groups: 40 male Saudi students; 40 female Saudi students; 20 male Saudi EFL students; 20 female Saudi EFL students; 20 British males; and 20 British females. The data was analysed based on Brown and Levinson’s politeness theory and using the Cross Cultural Speech Act Research Project (CCSARP) request and apology coding systems. Results showed that in specific situations, there were significant differences between the mean scores of the groups in terms of their strategy use. From a cross-cultural comparative perspective, Saudi males and females generally preferred to use direct strategies in their requests; whereas EFL and British groups were systematically more indirect. However, the Saudis also used the largest number of modifiers, such as religious softeners and prayers. On closer inspection, it seems that directness as used by the Saudis does not equate impoliteness, as suggested by Brown and Levinson (1987). Rather, it might be the case that the British tend to express polite forms by using syntactic and linguistic devices; whereas the Saudis tend to express polite forms by using direct linguistic means mitigated by the use of semantic softeners. From a pedagogical perspective, Saudi EFL learners showed consistent parallels with British native speakers’ preference for using indirect styles, although at somewhat a lower rate. Linguistically, they appeared to limit their use to specific strategies; mainly to query preparatory forms. The British, on the other hand, demonstrated a wider use of indirect strategies using various types of linguistic devices. Moreover, EFL learners reflected negative pragmatic transfer from their Mother tongues (L1) in their answers. These were mostly linguistic realisations which were directly and literally translated from Arabic to English, and which also resulted in ungrammatical English formations. They also demonstrated negative pragmatic transfer in their choice of perspective. For example, just like the Saudis, both EFL groups preferred the use of the hearer perspective more than the speaker perspective. The British, on the other hand, used the speaker perspective more. Furthermore, there appeared to be a number of gender differences between males and females within each group, but the difference between Saudi males and females was most prominent. These will be discussed in the thesis conclusion. The thesis concludes with recommendations for instructors and policy makers to include in their classrooms and curriculum making, such as the inclusion of the indirect forms that the British used in this study, and were not part of the original CCSARP speech-act classification.

Postgraduate learners are not only important for contributing to the development of Pakistan, but their age and exposure to English has the potential to reveal interesting motivations and attitudes towards learning English when compared to lower-level learners. This thesis investigates the motivations and attitudes toward learning English in rural-urban contexts of postgraduate (MA/MSc) non-major English as Second Language (ESL) students in Pakistan. This thesis addresses three main objectives. First, to identify postgraduate learners' motivational orientations toward learning English and their attitudes toward English as a World Language (EWL); second to determine whether the learners' gender has an effect on their attitudes toward EWL; third to identify learners' perceptions about the de-motivational factors related to impeding their successful English learning in the classroom. This study employed a concurrent mixed-methods design. The data collected from a remote public university in the developing province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan, with the survey completed by 500 students, and the semi-structured interviews were conducted on 26 postgraduate students. The quantitative data were analysed using factor, correlation, and regression analyses and t-tests. The qualitative data were analysed using thematic analysis. In contrast to earlier studies, this study identified that learners exhibit a wide range of L2 motivational orientations. The findings confirmed the newly-discovered ‘National Interest’ orientation in its extended form categorised as 'National-Islamic Interests, and confirmed Dörnyei's recent Ideal L2 self in this context, and also points toward the emergence of the rarely noted 'L2 Indigenous Integrative’ orientation, related to using English for local purposes. Similarly, the other rarely noted orientations of 'EWL as a L2 motivation', 'Family Interests', and 'Use of English for Voicing Females' Rights' emerged in the study. The traditional concept of L2 Integrative did not emerge, which confirms findings from studies such those by Lamb (2004) suggesting that L2 Integrative may be unattainable in a globalizing world. The findings also highlighted four aspects of the learners' positive attitudes towards EWL: 'attitudes toward the non-native varieties of English', ‘attitudes toward English as a main source of global communication', ‘attitudes toward the use of English as a tool of cross-cultural communication', and ‘attitudes toward the supremacy of native speakers and their Englishes'. The study revealed that learners' attitudes toward EWL had a positive correlation with learners’ motivational orientations. In general, learners' gender did not have an impact on their attitudes toward EWL. However, females appeared to hold more positive beliefs in the supremacy of native speakers and their use of English. Finally, the three main sources of learners' de-motivation: teacher-related factors (methods of teaching, behaviour, etc.), learner-related factors (feelings of L2 anxiety and reduced confidence), and factors related to the classroom environment and facilities are highlighted. On the basis of all findings, theoretical implications, suggestions for language policymakers and recommendations for further research are provided in Pakistan.

In the field of education, test scores are meant to provide an indication of test-takers’ knowledge or abilities. The validity of tests must be rigorously investigated to ensure that the scores obtained are meaningful and fair. Owing to the subjective nature of the scoring process, rater variation is a major threat to the validity of performance-based language testing (i.e., speaking and writing). This investigation explores the influence of two main effects on writing test scores using an analytic rating scale. The first main effect is that of raters’ first language (native and non-native). The second is the average length of sentences (essays with short sentences and essays with long sentences). The interaction between the main effects will also be analyzed. Sixty teachers of English as a second or foreign language (30 natives and 30 non-natives) working in Kuwait, used a 9-point analytic rating scale with four criteria to rate 24 essays with contrasting average sentence length (12 essays with short sentences on average and 12 with long sentences). Multi-Facet Rasch Measurement (using FACETS program, version 3.71.4) showed that: (1) the overall scores awarded by raters differed significantly in severity; (2) there were a number of significant bias interactions between raters’ first language and the essays' average sentence length; (3) the native raters generally overestimated the essays with short sentences by awarding higher scores than expected, and underestimated the essays with long sentences by awarding lower scores than expected. The non-natives displayed the reverse pattern. This was shown on all four criteria of the analytic rating scale. Furthermore, there was a significant interaction between raters and criteria, especially the criterion 'Grammatical range and accuracy'. Two sets of interviews were subsequently carried out. The first set had many limitations and its findings were not deemed adequate. The second set of interviews showed that raters were not influenced by sentence length per se, but awarded scores that were higher/lower than expected mainly due to the content and ideas, paragraphing, and vocabulary. This focus is most likely a result of the very problematic writing assessment scoring rubric of the Ministry of Education-Kuwait. The limitations and implications of this investigation are then discussed.

Along with globalization, English as a lingua franca (ELF) has played a more and more important role in international settings. Among English users, the number of English nonnative speakers (NNS) has reached more than 2 billion which has already overtaken the number of English native speakers (NS). However, the fact of using ELF has not been fully recognized, especially in China where there is a huge population of English users and learners who still take English as a foreign language (EFL). Since junior high school education in China affects the largest population of English learners and users and their language beliefs and language behaviours, it is very necessary to investigate the influences of global Englishes on language policy and practice or the compatibility that language policy and practice has had with global Englishes in junior high school in China. The research was a predominantly qualitative study with a quasi-ethnographic approach. The fieldwork took place over a three month period in a public junior high school in China. Questionnaires, interviews and observation were all explored as research instruments for a thick and full description of the research context. With qualitative content analysis approach and from global Englishes perspective, the thesis compares, analyses and integrates how English is stated in English national curriculum (NEC), how it is performed in classroom teaching performance, and how it is perceived by teachers and students. Findings show many inconsistencies and contradictions on English, English using and English teaching/learning among NEC statements, classroom performance and participants’ perception. Importantly, testing, which was Standard English ideology oriented, turned out to have a great wash-back on English learning and teaching, and was found to be one of the most significant factors for the inconsistencies and contradictions. The thesis also shows data for the forthcoming test reform in China. Implications for English pedagogy in China are also given.

The study presented in this PhD thesis is concerned with the exploration of symbolic, perceptual and ideological aspects of the global spread of English as an international lingua franca. In particular, it investigates the ways in which university students from a variety of Spanish-speaking contexts conceptualise and position English as a global language, and the ways in which they label and evaluate the variability emerging from its lingua franca use (ELF). English has come to be known as the worlds’ international language par excellence as a result of complex social, historical, political and globalisation processes. Learning more about the global use of English has led scholars to problematize long-standing theorisations of language and their suitability to explain the observed phenomena. Since language globalisation processes are not only affecting the ways in which we use English, but also the broader ways in which we think about it, it is necessary to explore the theorisations and representations of language with which (non-linguist) English users operate nowadays, how these may relate to their linguistic experiences and expectations, and how they may affect their future trajectories. In this thesis, I provide qualitative insights into the views of Spanish-speaking undergraduates from Chile, Mexico and Spain. I examine how students construct their experiences, conceptualisations, attitudes and beliefs, by analysing elicited talk about English. Attention is placed on the functions and meanings that are associated with the language between global and local spheres of use, and on conceptualisations and evaluations of ELF interactions in relation to issues of intelligibility, linguistic variability, and identity expression. The findings introduce the multiple and conflicted interpretative repertoires with which participants construct their evaluations and the complex uses made of key language and communication-related notions. The analysis also showcases the multifarious ways in which students recreate, challenge and/or negotiate broader ideologies of language in metalinguistic practice. Overall, the study highlights the need to address the sharp contrasts existing between the ontological complexity and multidimensionality with which students view this language, and the one-sided, standard and native-speaker-oriented representations that typically dominate principles and policies of English Language Teaching (ELT). To conclude, the thesis considers the pedagogical opportunities that talk about language has to offer in itself for ELT.

This qualitative study examines an era in the history of English education in Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) by investigating the perspectives of English offered by 16 female Emirati pre-service teachers. As important stakeholders of education reform, these Emirati women are on the cusp of a linguistic transformation: They are learning in English while preparing to use English as a medium of instruction in classrooms of their own. Within an Arabian context characterised by dynamic change, conceptions of English and how it should be used in relation to Arabic have, undoubtedly, shifted in status and focus. This study explores the complex and diverse ways English is conceptualised and used by Emirati pre-service teachers during a particular phase of educational reforms shaped by expectations of bi-literacy in English and Arabic. This study has two main research questions. They are: 1) What are Emirati pre-service teachers’ conceptions of English in light of its use as a medium of instruction? 2) What are the social influences mediating their conceptions of English? This study, conceptualized as an unfolding, exploratory study, draws on ethnographic methods across three phases of data collection: focus group discussions, participant observations and ethnographic interviews. It also relies on theoretical assumptions about the role of language in the construction of knowledge across diffferent phases of learning, as set by Berger and Luckman (1971). The findings shared in this study shed light on the meanings Emirati pre-service teachers have of English in light of its use as a medium of instruction and the social influences mediating their conceptions. The study offers two main contributions to the field. The first includes a report on the range of ways that English and Arabic are used, modified and incorporated into the participants’ linguistic repertoires, showing that the use of EMI reflects several discrete types of conversational practices. The second contribition highlights awareness of a rich linguistic backdrop. In Abu Dhabi, English and Arabic constitute foregrounded roles in a diverse and multilingual capital city where other languages are experienced and ranked in social importance. The findings conclude that English is regarded as more than a resource serving pragmatic purposes and creative impulses, English is also seen as a feature of Abu Dhabi as a social space. The themes shared in this study are intended to promote clarity of the sociolinguistic dynamics of a particular sub-group of Emirati pre-service teachers and their understandings of the use of English as a medium of instruction in higher education and stimulate discussion about the ways in which English is integrated into daily life on this peninsula in the Arabian Gulf.

This study investigates and evaluates the effectiveness of Laurillard’s Conversational Framework (LCF) in developing the writing component of foreign language learners’ (FLLs’) communicative competence in a blended learning (BL) context, as compared to a face-to-face (F2F) context. The FLLs in this study comprised three intact classes from a foundation course at a Saudi university. The three skills addressed consisted of the use of the past tense to describe past events and form wh-questions, as part of grammatical competence, and writing a letter of complaint, as part of sociolinguistic competence. To evaluate the effectiveness of LCF, a mixed-methods approach was used. The quasi-experimental design was applied by measuring learners’ development in the three aforementioned skills. The corresponding test results were then compared with those of a control group. Moreover, the benefits of LCF were examined by gathering the learners’ perceptions of the intervention and analysing their engagement with the teacher, peers, tasks and language. The study revealed that LCF was more effective in the BL than in the F2F context, in terms of developing the learners’ skill in forming wh-questions. However, both contexts almost equally developed the learners’ skills in using the past tense and writing a letter of complaint. Moreover, interviews with volunteers from the two experimental groups, observing their engagement, and analysing their conversations revealed positive perceptions amongst learners with an intermediate level of English language proficiency. On the other hand, two different factors affected their perceptions of the intervention: language proficiency and the willingness of peers to collaborate. Another factor affecting perceptions of BL was a lack of familiarity with the technology applied. It is therefore recommended to overcome this barrier and thus encourage the use of BL, given its effectiveness for the development of more writing skills in the present study, in comparison to an F2F approach.

This thesis adopts a mixed methods approach to investigate the interplay between lexical knowledge and written language proficiency among learners of English as a Second Language (ESL). To achieve its objectives, the study examines how written language ability relates to a battery of size and depth lexical measures. The Word Associates Test (WAT), the Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), the Vocabulary Profile (VocabProfile) tool and written compositions were used to produce quantitative data on the interplay between learners' breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge on the one hand, and writing proficiency on the other hand. Purposive sampling was used to identify ESL participants in order to ensure that data generated would be capable of producing relevant insights to address research questions. Stratified random sampling was used to select 40 written language samples from the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) to ensure topic consistency with 18 essays from ESL students. This allowed for a comparative analysis between lower proficiency (ESL) and higher proficiency (ICLE) students. Following written assessments, the study employed the stimulated reconstruction procedure to obtain emic perspectives on the rationale behind the lexical choices that ESL learners made during the WAT. Quantitative findings obtained highlight aspects of both size and depth of lexical knowledge as important factors in the interplay between vocabulary knowledge and written language skills. Qualitative findings highlight the potential for multiple factors that could affect individual learners' trajectories. Taken together, the findings from quantitative and qualitative data deepen lexical insights by highlighting the complex interplay between lexis and writing. The study draws on the Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) as a lens for interpreting and reconciling these findings. To that effect, it offers methodological contributions by highlighting the relevance of DST to ESL developmental processes, which is a relatively new theory in the field of Applied Linguistics.