Research into attitudes to code-switching has frequently produced very negative and ambivalent perceptions, not only by outsiders but also by insiders. This study aims mainly to investigate the way people from different age groups and school settings evaluate major spoken varieties in the State of Kuwait. School students (14-18 years) in schools of different educational schemes (government, English and bilingual schools) were recorded telling stories of personal experiences to ingroup community members (same age group, gender and school type) in their normal way of everyday speech styles. A number of those stories were selected to represent three main spoken language varieties in Kuwait (Kuwaiti-only, English-only and Kuwaiti/English code-switching analysed into two representative types: intersentential and lexical code-switching). Teenagers drawn from the various investigated school settings (n = 417) and a group of teachers (n = 88) rated the audio-recorded speakers on a number of scales of solidarity, status, communicative and culture-based (religiousness, Kuwaitiness and conservativeness) traits in order to explore the evaluative profiles that different groups of people have towards the investigated language varieties in the country. The study revealed some strongly differentiated evaluative profiles by the various groups of respondents based on their school type, age group, gender, and for code-switching specifically, as a result of the code-switched typology. Encountering some ambiguous results, the study maintains the need for qualitative measures, not only as a separate data in their own right (focus group interviews), but also to be included within the modified matched-guise questionnaire (open ended questions). Unlike previous attitudinal studies on code-switching, the current study reveals some very positive attitudes towards the speech style, particularly by those who practise it, and specifically along cultural attributes, as a result of the differing ideologies nurtured within the three school types.

This thesis focuses on the extent to which non-native speakers of English understand potentially ironic utterances in a similar way to native speakers. Barbe (1995: 4) sees irony as one of ‘the final obstacles before achieving near native-speaker fluency.’ This assumption is supported by the findings of earlier studies (Bouton 1999, Lee 2002; Manowong 2011; Yamanaka 2003) which assumed a Gricean framework seeing irony as communicating the ‘opposite of what is said’ (Grice 1975, 1978). This thesis adopts instead the relevance-theoretic account of irony as echoic (Sperber and Wilson 1995; Wilson and Sperber 2012), arguing that previous work suffers from both problematic theoretical assumptions and flawed experimental methods. The thesis reports the findings of two experiments designed to examine similarities and differences between the responses of non-native speakers of English (here Japanese speakers) and native speakers and how similar or different the effects of prosody are for these groups. The first experiment, conducted by an online survey, provided surprising results, suggesting that Japanese speakers can respond to potentially ironical utterances similarly to native speakers. The second experiment, focusing on the effects of prosody, compared the groups with regard to response trends. Three prosodic contours were used in this study, labelled ‘basic’ (a kind of default, unmarked tone), ‘deadpan’ (with a narrower pitch range), and ‘exaggerated’ (with a wider pitch range). The results indicated that Japanese participants could perceive English prosodic structure in similar ways to native speakers and were affected by prosodic contours in similar ways. It also suggested that Japanese participants were affected less strongly by ‘exaggerated’ intonation and slightly more strongly by ‘deadpan’ tones. These findings suggest that a relevance-theoretic framework provides the means to carry out fuller investigations than carried out previously and to develop a more systematic explanation of the understanding of irony in a second language.

This study explores the possibility that techniques based on ‘syntactic priming’, a tendency to produce utterances with structures individuals have recently been exposed to, and ‘syntactic satiation’, which leads individuals to judge previously unacceptable utterances as acceptable, can be used to evaluate second language teaching methods. This is based on the assumption that the more robust an individual’s linguistic intuitions, the less susceptible they are to priming or satiation effects. An experimental methodology was developed and used to compare the effectiveness of the explicit (‘Grammar Translation’) method currently used to teach English in Libyan universities with an implicit (‘Direct’) method. Both methods present only positive evidence, i.e. what are assumed to be grammatical forms, and do not present what are assumed to be ungrammatical forms. The study assumed a ‘Principles and Parameters’ approach on which second language learning involves setting or resetting parameters to those relevant to the language being acquired. It focused on the ‘verb raising parameter’, which has different settings in Arabic and English, and on yes-no questions and adverb placement, whose structures are partly determined by the setting of this parameter. One group of participants was taught using the explicit method and one using the implicit method. After teaching, each group was exposed to activities designed to induce priming and satiation. For yes-no questions, the results showed robust intuitions for both groups. For adverb placement, they showed susceptibility to priming and satiation effects for the group taught using the implicit method. The findings are limited in what they suggest about the two teaching methods but they showed that both methods were effective in teaching these forms. They confirm that priming and satiation effects can arise in a second language and suggest that activities designed to induce these effects could provide a way of evaluating particular teaching methods.

In order to expand the institutional support base for professional learning and development of teachers in the field of TESOL and other educational disciplines, a firm resolve is needed to keep extending our intellectual frontiers for a broader understanding of a fundamental question in educational research: How do teachers learn and develop? In light of the TESOL Inc. (2003) position statement on teacher quality, which conceives TESOL to be a professional discipline, the present research was conducted on the learning biographies of those TESOL professionals who have already demonstrated their professional competence and earned the title of highly effective TESOL professionals at their workplaces. On their supposedly epic journey from being novices to becoming highly effective TESOL professionals, they are expected to have developed an advanced level of professional consciousness, which is informed by a blend of propositional, pedagogical and experiential knowledge of the profession and the noble professional and humanistic values reiterated by TESOL Inc. To enhance our understanding of the phenomenon set forth above via research on the learning biographies, the current study was primarily planned to analyse the continuing professional learning and development experience, along with the role of various influential contextual and individual factors, of three highly effective Pakistani TESOL professionals working at a Saudi university. More importantly, explanation was sought for the nature of their professional learning and development in light of the social learning theories of Vygotsky and Lave and Wenger, and the established yet evolving construct of reflective practice. With a scope for investigative depth, interpretive adequacy, and illuminative fertility (Shank & Villella, 2004), the study was designed within the ambit of Interpretive Paradigm employing purposive sampling for data collection. Following an intra-paradigm methodological eclecticism, a narrative-biographical inquiry of three TESOL professionals’ lifelong professional learning and development was conducted for fieldwork. The findings of the study have some significant implications that may be of interest to a myriad of people. The findings of these narratives of professional learning and development may be motivating for the TESOL aspirants in Pakistan and the Gulf, enlightening for fellow professionals at different rungs of their career, and thought-provoking for researchers, teacher-trainers and policy-makers in the field of TESOL. First, the findings reinforced with additional evidence that TESOL professionals learn in a variety of ways and their professional learning and development feature idiosyncrasy and complexity rendering all attempts at uniformity of the process of learning as problematic. Whereas, an inclusive, non-dichotomous approach combining a variety of learning theories can help capture the ubiquitous and variegated nature of teachers’ professional learning and development. Secondly, the findings underscored that such learning experiences which tend to effect an epistemological as well as an ontological change in teachers, lead to profound transformation in their professional-self. Thirdly, the participants’ concern for context-specificity and culture-sensitivity in their pedagogical practice, particularly in the event of boundary crossing (job in a different context), significantly contributes to their learning by challenging their existing repertoire and creating new zones of proximal development (ZPDs). Fourthly, the study envisages hope for the vital context-specific professional learning and development through participation in interdependent, synergistic professional learning communities epitomizing the features of mutual empathy and maturity. Fifthly, the analyses of these narratives offer situated understanding of professional learning and development with a scope for readers to identify with (some of) the ideas, themes, and patterns and develop them further for application beyond the research context. Finally, narratives of lifelong professional learning and development of these highly effective Pakistani TESOL professionals are a substantial contribution to the extremely deficient body of knowledge about the learning lives of Pakistani TESOL professionals working in or outside Pakistan.

The use of wikis to support collaborative writing activities has captured the attention of second/foreign language researchers (SL/FL). The majority of studies to date have found evidence of positive collaborative behaviours, however some studies have reported inactive and unequal participation, individual ownership of the text, and minimal evidence of collaborative dialogue. Although the important role of the teacher has been reported in contexts such as face- to-face (FTF) and other online contexts, few studies have explored the effect of teachers’ online interventions on student-student (S-S) interaction in the wiki context. Therefore, this thesis fills this gap by exploring teachers’ interventional behaviours, and in particular, how they affect S-S wiki collaboration. A qualitative multiple case study design was conducted with 3 EFL teachers and their students (aged 17-18 years) at two Kuwaiti government high schools. Data were collected over a period of 13 weeks. The online discussion that occurred between students via the wiki threaded mode and their writing behaviours, as shown in the edits history were analysed and triangulated with the interview data. Unlike previous research, this study brings together the analysis of the wiki threaded discussion and editing behaviours to understand the process of collaboration. Qualitative Computer Mediated Discourse Analysis (CMDA) suggests that the teachers played an effective role in shaping the way the students interacted. An examination of the teachers’ interventional behaviours suggests that some interventional behaviours promoted S-S collaboration and some hindered it. Behaviours such as establishing a wiki culture of collaboration, reinforcing a sense of wiki community, asking students to engage mutually, being a co-learner and modelling editing behaviour, all seem to promote collaboration. Conversely, direct teacher edits, immediate responses, using an authoritative tone, and asking inactive students to participate may promote participation but not necessarily collaboration. The interview data also suggested that sociocultural issues, such as teachers’ superiority, questionable peer feedback, and individual text-ownership hindered collaboration. Therefore, this thesis argues that even in an online student-centred context such as a wiki, the role of the teacher is critical. Teachers who adopt a non-authoritative and collaborative-orientated intervention are much more effective in promoting S-S collaboration than those who are authoritative and intervene in a non-collaborative way. There is therefore a need for teacher training that raises teachers’ awareness of effective pedagogy regarding the use of wikis.

Modern approaches to second language (L2) pedagogy emphasise authentic L2 use for successful L2 learning. However, it has been a common observation L2 contexts that despite possessing years of experience in L2 learning, sometimes even students with higher L2 proficiency shy away from communication, while others plunge themselves in a conversation involving L2. It has been argued that in order for learners to become successful L2 users they not only have to have competence and motivation but a higher willingness to communicate in the target language as well. The present study was, therefore, designed to explore the situational variables and their interaction determining the willingness to communicate (WTC) in English (L2) of six postgraduate business students in a university classroom in Pakistan. While much research has been undertaken to examine trait-like psychological antecedents, only a few studies have examined the nature of the interaction between situational variables affecting L2 WTC in a classroom context. Adopting the Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) framework, the present study utilised classroom observations, learners’ diaries, stimulated recall interviews and biographic questionnaires to collect the data over ten weeks. The study results showed that participants’ L2 WTC emerged as a result of the complex, dynamic and non-linear interaction between contextual, psychological, linguistic and physiological factors. Most notably, the study revealed that while learners’ L2 use was a manifestation of their willingness to talk, their silence was not always a reflection of their un-willingness but involved an active cognitive engagement in L2 communication. The current study, therefore, reinforces the need for teachers to be aware of the multiple factors which affect learners’ L2 WTC and silence in L2 classroom. Owing to the complexity and non-linearity of interaction of variables, the current study proposes pre-service and in-service teacher training for English language teachers in Pakistan.

This study aimed to explore the nature of self-efficacy among 161 Thai undergraduate EFL students through the investigation of the level of their self-efficacy and the relationship between their self-efficacy and their proficiency in listening comprehension. Learners’ attributions for success and failure, which might also influence their self-efficacy beliefs, were also explored. The second aim of the study was to examine whether a programme of listening strategy instruction could improve their level of self-efficacy, the level of their listening comprehension, and their reported use of listening strategies. Finally, the study examined whether learners from different levels of proficiency benefit from the strategy instruction in a similar manner. This research study is of a quasi-experimental, mixed method design, with one intervention group and one comparison group. Listening proficiency was measured by a free-recall listening task and a listening comprehension question task. The levels of self-efficacy and strategy use were elicited by a set of questionnaires. The manner of strategy use was also further investigated by using a stimulated-recall interview which required 14 participants to give a verbal account of how they had performed the previous listening tasks. These instruments were implemented at pre- and post-test data collection points before and after the intervention which lasted 12 weeks. The findings of the study indicate that, at pre-test, the level of self-efficacy among the participants was rather low but correlation analyses suggest a moderate relationship between self-efficacy and listening comprehension levels. Statistical analysis revealed that there was no statistically significant difference in how much the intervention and comparison groups improved their self-efficacy levels from pre-test to post-test. However, the intervention group participants improved their levels of listening comprehension significantly more than the comparison group participants on both the free-recall and the listening comprehension question task. This was true for both high and low proficiency learners. While a 2×2 ANOVA on the strategy questionnaire items did not indicate statistically significant changes in strategy use as a result of the intervention, a Hierarchical Cluster Analysis suggested that a greater number of the intervention group participants had positive behaviours at post-test than was the case at pre-test. The manner of the participants’ listening strategy use was further explored by looking at the frequency of strategies reported in the stimulated recall interview as well as the way in which strategy combinations were employed. At post-test, the intervention group reported a much higher level of hypothesis formation, hypothesis monitoring and hypothesis formation than at pre-test, which was not the case for the comparison group. Likewise, the intervention participants also reported greater use of word or chunk identification as well as being able to combine other strategies to compensate for gaps in their bottom-upskills. Thus, there was evidence that the intervention group had changed the way in which they employed listening strategies as a result of the intervention, while the comparison group showed much fewer changes. The study not only provides evidence of the potential benefits of strategy instruction for improving L2 listening comprehension, regardless of learners’ proficiency levels, but also has methodological implications, as the strategy analyses demonstrated the value of exploring strategy use through a qualitative approach.

The acquisition of English articles has been studied extensively in recent years suggesting difficulties facing learners from languages with and without articles. Explorations into cross-linguistic differences defined semantic universals of article features such as: definiteness, specificity and genericity and different form-meaning mappings between languages (e.g. Hawkins et al, 2006; Ionin, Ko & Wexler, 2004; Ionin & Montrul, 2009; Ionin et al, 2011; Slabakova, 2008; Snape, 2006). Meanwhile, this detailed account of the features related to articles is not found in English language instruction. The purpose of this research is to investigate the application of those findings from current generative second language acquisition research in the language classroom. The study started out by defining the difficulties in acquiring English articles by L1 Najdi Arabic speakers through a “contrastive analysis of features” that cause re-assembly difficulties (Lardiere, 2008, 2009; Slabakova, 2009). Contexts that involve the [+generic] feature are proposed to involve feature re-assembly difficulties and another difficulty is found with syntactic restrictions on the definite article when the noun is modified by a relative clause (Almahboob, 2009; Azaz, 2014; Sarko, 2009a, 2009b). Following an experimental design, the study included 54 Najdi Arabic speakers and 10 native English speakers. Three instruments were used: forced choice, sentence repetition, and written production conducted as pre-tests, post-tests and delayed post-tests eight weeks later. Two experimental groups received explicit and an implicit instruction with reinforced texts over the course of five weeks and a third uninstructed control group was used for comparison. The findings show that explicit and implicit instruction resulted in improvement not found with the control group. The explicit instruction resulted in improvement on the generic plural context and sustained long term effect. Therefore, this study recommends explicit instruction following an analytic focus on form on reinforced texts to accelerate the re-assembly process and recovery from L1 transfer.

This thesis gives an account of an ethnographically-informed case study of two ESOL citizenship courses offered as an alternative to the Life in the UK test. Using the concepts of ‘brokering’ and ‘stance’ I draw together four levels of context: theoretical debates about citizenship; the social and political events which led to the introduction of the citizenship programme; the institutions where the case study classes took place; and the pedagogy and interaction in the two classrooms. The teachers are shown to adopt different stances on the political, institutional and local influences on ESOL citizenship: one, perceiving ESOL and citizenship to be synonymous, made few changes to her lessons whilst the other attempted to teach citizenship head-on. Analysis of the latter reveals that much of the curriculum content centred on a received notion of British culture, although some attention was paid to political citizenship knowledge and contemporary debates. A close examination of classroom talk shows that teaching about Britain required considerable relational and ‘stance work’ on the part of the teacher as she strived to make topics accessible to students and to mediate – or ‘broker’ – between them, the official programme and her own values and beliefs. In both classes, citizenship remained at one remove from students’ local experiences, either because of its erasure from the syllabus, because of the urgent imperative of exam preparation or because, in attempting to mitigate the more troublesome aspects of Britishness, the teacher evaded certain citizenship related topics and positioned students more frequently as representatives of their countries of birth than as Londoners. The findings suggest that if citizenship is to be addressed meaningfully in ESOL, social and political content needs to be brought centre-stage alongside a language curriculum and pedagogy which develops the capabilities for active, participatory citizenship.

In adopting a qualitative, ethnographically informed approach this thesis explores the identity formation of novice teachers in the lifelong learning sector in England. The research is concerned with four areas for inquiry: how novice teachers perceive the relationship between their professional practices, experiences and emerging teacher identities; the usefulness of the concept of 'craft' in sociological writings to theorise the identities of novice teachers; the appropriateness of a digital ethnographic methodological approach enabling effective research into teachers lives in this sector; and, the applicability of online asynchronous blogging practices to support the development of the professional practices by novice teachers in the lifelong learning sector in England. The identity and pedagogic practices of these novice teachers are contextualised by the ‘turbulent times’ for both the workplace of this sector and the teacher education that supports entrants into this sector. The fieldwork for the research follows two cohorts of new entrants into first-time employment across an 18-month period. In developing an understanding of craft identities, blogging practices are developed as a methodological tool within a digital ethnographic approach, exploring the potential for this revised ethnography. The use of reflective practices through online tools to generate data is conceived herein as an ‘epistemology of doing’: a research practice that in turn supports in an ethical way the lives and social practices of those who participate. The findings of the thesis suggest (contrary to use of the term craft by neo-liberalism) that novice teachers’ craft practice and craft identity are a potentially stable basis for sustained practice in the otherwise turbulent lifelong learning sector. However, this ‘stable basis’ also provides contradictions, uneasy relations, compromises and insurmountable challenges when buttressed against the performativity cultures of the sector.