With the current immigration and migration trends in Europe and worldwide, English as an Additional Language (EAL) education is becoming a prominent area of educational research. The discourse around EAL and social justice education has, until now, largely focused on primary, secondary, and post compulsory aged students. Preschool aged EAL children have been left out of the academic discourse. Pedagogical approaches need to be explored to marry EAL and social justice for preschool children. Maria Montessori’s pedagogical approach may be able to achieve this unity without compromising the language development that is desired. The following study is a piece of action research, applying the Montessori Method to a group of nine EAL children in the Canton of Zürich, Switzerland. The data gathered suggests that applying Montessori’s approach to EAL education, that of listening to the child and being attentive to his\her needs, gives autonomy to the student, and can promote social justice in preschool EAL education. Listening to the child occurs through ‘observation’ (attentiveness to the child), critical reflection of practice, and experimentation in education. In this way each child receives a customized education that has, at its foundation, respect for the child. Using ‘observation,’ field notes, and researcher reflections, it became apparent that young children are able to communicate their educational needs. TESOL outcomes were used to monitor the rate at which English was learned. Each language journey was vastly different, but regardless of the initial outcomes met, all children demonstrated increases in their comprehension and spoken English. It is important to recognize that children must be listened to and should be considered valued members in their education.

Recent development in trilingualism and trilingual education in minority dominated regions in China has highlighted the importance of training qualified trilingual teachers to support the students to achieve additive trilingualism. While research has been carried out in the domains of policy studies, trilingual education models and practice across China in general, there has been relatively little research on trilingual teacher training, especially remote western regions such as Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR). Adopting a case study approach, this research evaluates the English language teacher training programmes, in order to identify issues and effective models for English language teacher training, and discusses them in the light of wider pedagogical implications for trilingualism and trilingual teacher training in China. This research adopted a multi-methods approach, in which the data were collected through survey questionnaires and interviews among the key stakeholders involved in the training programme, and further complemented by data through classroom observations. This study found that while no one seemed to disagree that Mandarin Chinese as the national official language but the second language (L2) for minority students is, and should be, strongly promoted because of its importance in every aspect of education in XUAR, it could also be the bottleneck and barrier which minority students face in learning English (their L3). This is due to the fact that many minority student trainees came to the university with a rather weak L2 which was nonetheless used as the medium of instruction for all subject teaching. The participating key stakeholders showed, on the whole, positive attitudes towards trilingual language teacher training. However, awareness of the importance of the minority language (their L1) during their trilingual language training needs to be raised, and its relationship with Mandarin Chinese and English during the trilingual teacher training process needs to be properly addressed. The research incorporates the results of the current research and theoretical perspectives regarding the nature of additive trilingualism and inclusive practice. In particular, the study proposes that the notion of English language teacher training should be trilingual teacher training in minority-dominated regions of China. As the notion of trilingual teacher training suggests, all three languages should be taken into account in designing the curriculum for English language teacher training. Appropriate incorporation of L1 and L2 into the curriculum would not only enhance their bilingual competence in their home language and Mandarin Chinese, but also facilitate their learning of L3, English. Finally, recommendations are made for trilingual teacher training and limitations are also acknowledged.

This study investigates the longitudinal development of L2 English speakers’ use of word search sequences. Word search sequences are moments in talk when a speaker displays difficulty finding the appropriate linguistic item to convey the message that could be understood by the interlocutor. Word search sequences are the target object of this study due to their importance in achieving intersubjectivity in L2 interactions and progressing the conversation (Chiarenza, 2010; Kim, 2009; Kurhila, 2006). Despite its crucial role in interaction, little research has investigated how word search sequences are co-constructed and the interlocutors’ influence on the L2 speaker’s word search sequences in English as a lingua franca (ELF) interactions, where speakers do not share the same L1. Moreover, the development of the speakers and the changes of the use of word search sequences that occur over time in ELF interactions have not been documented. Core participants were four female Japanese L2 speakers of English engaged in ELF interactions with 32 different students from 10 different countries at an international university dormitory in Japan. Video recordings across 22 months were collected, starting from the early stages of joining an ELF environment for their first time. Approximately 37 hours of video conversations were transcribed and analyzed using Conversation Analysis (CA) as the main method of analysis. Initial analyses highlighted features of word search sequences in ELF interactions. The Japanese participants demonstrated (a) strong preference towards self-repair of self-initiated word searches even in ELF interactions through the use of candidate words, code-switching, semantic contiguity, gestures, and dictionary and (b) unique methods of initiating word searches using code-switching or what-endings. Furthermore, (c) the partners displayed a wider variety of responses towards the word search sequences than in L1-L2 interactions. ii The longitudinal and quantitative CA analysis demonstrated that (a) there are large individual differences in the changes of word search sequence patterns, (b) participants display changes in their word search sequences as an adaptation to their interactional partner, and (c) the interactional partners displayed less other-correction to the word search sequences as time progressed. Findings suggests that language development is neither linear nor an individual activity, but displays characteristics of a Complex Adaptive System (N. C. Ellis & Larsen- Freeman, 2009b; Seedhouse, 2010b) where non-linear adaptation is mutually accomplished between the interlocutors. This study advocates the need for a more holistic view of language development, which could lead to new avenues for language learning and applied linguistic research.

This research study examined the effectiveness of initial English as a foreign language (EFL) teacher education in a Sub-Saharan African context (Niger). It draws on theoretical perspectives from Stenhouse (1967; 1975), Schön (1987; 1991), Vygotsky (1978) and Freire (2000), who defined effective teaching as a process of sharing experience, posing problems, reflecting-in-action and creating meaningful interaction with and for learners. The study therefore situates effective teacher learning as a process of creating and reconstructing knowledge, taking into account student teachers’ prior knowledge and experience rather than transmitting predefined knowledge to them. With these theoretical perspectives in mind, the research was carried out through a qualitative case study framework. An EFL programme was selected, and classroom observation, semi-structured interviews and documents review were undertaken based on a theoretical sampling process for data gathering. Consequently, three modules were observed over a full semester, and twenty-two participants (eighteen students, one part-time educator, one full-time educator and two other educators wearing the hats of administrators) offered interview data. Using thematic analysis strategies, the study has revealed the predominance of traditional approaches of English language teacher education (ELTE) within the EFL programme. The latter offers linguistic and cultural knowledge as the key element for becoming an EFL teacher; it does not provide much in terms of professional pedagogical knowledge and skills. This situation is exacerbated by the predominant modes of course delivery and assessment through which memorisation and rote learning are emphasised. Other findings include students’ attitude towards speaking English and reading as a form of resistance to practices established through educational borrowing, which characterises the review process in that context. The examination of certain institutional and contextual factors has also revealed the extent to which large classes, programme policy, shortage of academic staff and academic resources negatively affect teaching, learning and educators’ professional development. These factors can be regarded as colonial legacies and the consequence of underdevelopment characterised by the lack of solid funding schemes for higher education institutions. Overall findings suggest that the effectiveness of initial EFL teacher preparation within the studied programme is impeded by both pedagogical and institutional factors. Theoretically, findings confirm assumptions relating to the influence of English as an international language and globalisation on educational practices in diverse context. Methodologically, they raise issues pertaining to the need for customisation of research based on beliefs, norms and values of local contexts. To cater for these factors, possible improvements could be secured through a restructure of the ELTE curricula and establishment of an inquiry-based teaching and participatory review framework.

This research study uses socio-cultural theories of learning to investigate scaffolded instruction as a pedagogical tool across instructional activities and describe the type of student interaction it creates in the particular context of one ESL classroom in need of ways for improving interaction among students. The three main objectives of the study include an attempt to describe how scaffolding is discursively performed in the two instructional activities of teacher-led whole group lessons and tutorials a description of student interaction in the classroom when scaffolding is applied and an investigation of how scaffolding as dialogic interaction contrasts between the two instructional activities. Participants in this study were all secondary school students attending a remedial English class consisting of no more than ten students at an American international school in Kuwait. Audio recording of the lesson for spoken discourse analysis, alongside observation and interviewing were used to collect data simultaneously for the two instructional activities of teacher-led whole group lessons and tutorials which were both formatted, based on previous literature to include scaffolding elements. For both whole group lessons and tutorials, observations took place as well as a recording and transcription of the lesson for oral discourse analysis followed by interviews with students immediately after the lesson. This was repeated for three whole group teacher-led lessons and three tutorials resulting in a total of 6 data collection events for each of the three research methods were completed. By providing a linguistic understanding of scaffolded instruction, this study presents scaffolding as a more concrete concept by demonstrating how particular elements of scaffolding create classroom interaction. Additionally, this research provides a relative comparison and contrast of scaffolding as it occurs and creates interaction during two instructional activities thus providing specific recommendations for addressing a pedagogic concern with student motivation in the context of a particular ESL classroom.

The Curriculum of the Intensive English Program (IEP) established in the mid-twentieth century at the Lebanese American University (LAU) has been reviewed several times. However, since the 1970s, the minor changes that have been implemented to the program structure and content needed to be reviewed in relation to students' changing needs in post-war Lebanon. The present study through action research is an attempt to identify relevant program weaknesses and propose solutions. This study overviews what the program used to be and focuses on the changes that occurred and were implemented in the past years and up to Summer 1999. The basis of the research undertaken at the university is the data collected through questionnaires, interviews, observation, document analysis, and discussion with staff and students. Thus, through triangulation, a multi-method approach, was achieved. The findings show that throughout the various cycles of the action research (participatory and emancipatory), the program was slowly but surely modified. Innovations were implemented, evaluated, and changed; thus, from a skill-oriented syllabus to a task-based language approach with an emphasis on academic writing skills, a huge step far from the traditional approach in teaching has been reached. Learners' needs are prioritized, and integration of all language skills is adopted in the program. Collaboration among the students, IEP faculty, and the researcher has strengthened the team spirit established because of the action research. Not only did the changes trigger the motivation of the learners but it also allowed the IEP staff to become more innovative in their approach to language teaching. However, and action research is a never-ending cycle; this research is far from being completed. The years to come should see new changes in order to continue what has already been achieved.

This thesis investigated whether results in Keyword Method research, past and present, can be transferred to genuine classroom situations and whether the Keyword Method also effects the motivation of the learners. Since this thesis is concerned with the issue of vocabulary learning and teaching in the TESOL classroom, past and current research on this subject was examined together with the learning strategies that learners have at their disposal to achieve their learning target. Because the Keyword Method is a memory learning strategy that is supposed to utilise the workings of the brain, these workings were examined and an attempt was made to explain the beneficial effects of this method by linking theories of memory as advocated in the fields of psychology, philosophy and the neurosciences. The results of this cross-disciplinary literature research allow the conclusion that the apparent effectiveness of the Keyword Method is based on sound scientific principles. I then discussed the characteristics and properties of effective mnemonics, including the limitations and unrealistic use which have in the past contributed to their rejection. The concept of the mnemonic Keyword Method was then explored to establish its vital elements and the characteristics which are needed to make it effective in the classroom. I found that some of these are of lesser importance to the language classroom. Research into the effectiveness of the method on vocabulary retention has been carried out in the past in the laboratory and quasi-classroom situations with encouraging results. These investigates were carried out within the interpretive research paradigm. I conducted five experiments to obtain empirical evidence to try to answer the former question and a questionnaire and three interviews to address the latter. I found that the Keyword Method enhances vocabulary retention to a great extent compared with comparison groups, and that it has a beneficial effect on the motivation of the learners. This led to the suggestion of further research into the Keyword Method and especially current teaching methodology, since available research so far tends to be inconclusive.

In Hong Kong, the demand for school leavers with effective English skills has been exceeding supply for some time. Attempts to redress the problem by schools have been hampered by the lack of research evidence which would help produce more students with the required/relevant skills, hence recommendations e.g. Education Report No. 4 (1987) that more research should be undertaken into effective English learning strategies. This study seeks to extend, within a Hong Kong context, the research devoted to factors involved in successful language learning. It investigates the relationship between attitude/motivation, language learning strategies and achievement in English of Form 7 students in nine Hong Kong senior secondary schools (N = 476), selected from Bands 1 /2 and 4/5. Several instruments were used: a questionnaire; a language competence rating scale; interviews with 13 teachers and 42 students, identified by their teachers as high/low achievers (HA/LA); plus student think-aloud tasks. The quantitative data were analysed by a variety of multi-variate techniques while the transcribed interview data were analysed for representative statements to illuminate the research questions. The analyses identified the language learning strategies significantly associated with competence and also indicated several problems: lack of exposure to English, the learning demands of an exam culture and the lack of adequate facilities in the classroom. Clear differences emerged between the HA's and the LA's in attitude, motivation and choice of language learning strategies. The HA's were more active and ready to see problems as challenges whereas the LA's were more passive and gave up quickly when a problem surfaced. The factors that make for a successful learning plus a language learner profile, which may remain specific to Hong Kong, are outlined and indicate the role of attitude, motivational orientation and language learning strategies adopted to cope with the vicissitudes of language learning.

This cross-cultural study investigates whether the compliment response realisation patterns are universal across languages or cultural-specific. To achieve this goal, this project investigated how the compliment response speech act was performed by native speakers of American English, Native speakers of Saudi Arabic, and by Saudi EFL learners in light of the effects of the complimenter's social status, the complimenter's social distance, the respondent's gender and the respondent-complimenter gender-pairing. The data for this study were collected by the means of triangulation methodology; naturalistic observation, elicitation, and interviews. Discourse completion tests (DCT), the main data collection instrument, were completed by 150 subjects (50 in each group). The collected data were sorted and categorised according to a response categorisation scheme prepared by the researcher for this purpose. The DCT distribution of compliment response types across language groups indicate that while Americans accepted and rejected slightly more than Saudis did, Saudis deflected more frequently than Americans. Only the Deflection response category of both American and Saudi response types was significantly affected by both the complimenter's social status and social distance. Specifically, the higher the complimenter's social status and the closer the complimenter's social distance, the more frequently both Americans and Saudis deflected. In response to the effect of gender, only the Acceptance response category of both American and Saudi response types was significantly affected by the respondent's gender and the gender-pairings of respondent and complimenter. However, Saudis accepted more and rejected less when the respondent and complimenter were of the same sex, and vice versa, whereas Americans behaved in exactly the opposite way. Regarding pragmatic transfer, the results suggest that the Saudi EFL learners group respondents transferred the frequency patterns of Saudis in performing bald acceptance, formulaic acceptance, duty, and return response types. Similarly, they transferred some of the distinguishing cultural modes of Saudi Arabic to their compliment responses expressed in English.

Recent beliefs over the appropriateness of using cultural constructs as a tool to enhance foreign language learning have become entrenched into polarized camps. Disagreement between these two sides most often arises in the field of L2 writing. While writing encompasses many different facets, one of these, critical thinking, has received considerable attention. Some research suggests that Asians, including Japanese, do not display critical thinking as conveyed by their writing in English. On the other hand, other researchers claim that Asian learners are far too diverse to make claims about the whole group's thinking abilities. The present study proposes a model for assessing critical thinking in the writing of L2 learners in order to determine whether: 1) Japanese learners think critically, 2) instruction in critical thinking enhances their ability to think critically, 3) content familiarity plays a role in critical thinking, and 4) hierarchy and collectivity prevent Japanese from criticizing. Findings of an experiment performed on 69 Japanese undergraduate students using control and treatment groups and a pre- post-treatment design indicate that subjects did think critically and showed improvement after receiving instruction. However, the quality of critical though appeared to depend on the topic content with a familiar topic generating better critical thinking. In addition, it was found that notions of hierarchy or collectivism did not prevent subjects from being critical. Recent disagreement over whether Japanese language learners have critical thinking abilities is used here as a representation of how TESOL researchers have confirmed themselves to the intellectual framework of the social sciences. Working under assumptions about human behaviour that consider the brain a tabula rasas, TESOL researchers fail to consider new understandings coming from evolutionary psychology. This paper explains how critical thinking may be just one of many domain specific mechanisms with which all humans are equipped at birth. On a larger level, it is suggested that the TESOL community needs to broaden beyond the notion that 'learning' is the one and only way in which human behaviour can be understood.