This thesis studies Friendly Societies of New Zealand from 1842, when the first lodge was established, to l94l when the Social Security Amendment Bill, allowing for the implementation of the general medical benefit, was enacted. It is the study of how, through the formation of mutual aid societies, a significant group of working people protected themselves against hardship. At the same time, it is the study of how Friendly Societies, by means of social activity and ritual, bonded their members together and synthesised their welfare role with the values of respectability, thrift and independence. The establishment of lodges throughout the nineteenth century is explored and it is shown how lodges, as well as providing for their members' welfare needs, were also effective community institutions of social integration, facilitating the adaptation of immigrants to their new environment. By the twentieth century very few New Zealand settlements were without a lodge. As an integral part of their communities, they were cross-class institutions, drawing together and mixing people from different classes, occupations and social groups. Traced also is the transformation of Friendly Societies from small, financially insecure, local lodges, combining conviviality with limited welfare benefits, to the large financially sound consolidated Societies of the 1930s providing their members with access to modem health care. Effective insurance became the primary focus of Friendly Societies. Although social life remained active, as the twentieth Century progressed, people increasingly joined lodges only for the health and medical benefits offered. Because of their wide range of benefits and because there was little else in the way of welfare relief at the time, Friendly Societies were relevant and significant suppliers of welfare. The state recognised this role and supported them with legislation and help, at least until 1910. However, as the state increasingly ventured into the welfare arena its support for the Societies waned, until finally friendly Society sickness benefits were replaced by the 1938 Social Security Act and their medical benefits by the Social Security Amendment Act of 1941. Friendly Societies were sidelined. Because welfare historiography has tended to focus on the state, it has neglected Friendly Societies. This study intends to redress the balance, and show that welfare did not start with tie state - that many people were making effective provision against sickness, disability and death for themselves long before the introduction of the welfare state.

This thesis is an examination of the importance of army supply in deciding the success and failure of the frontiers of the Roman Empire with particular emphasis on those frontiers in the Rhine-Danube provinces. It will look at logistics as the reason for the end of expansion of the Roman Empire and the frontiers forming where they did. It will also argue that the failure of logistics was a major factor in the collapse of those same frontier defences and the ultimate fall of the western part of the empire. The need to feed and supply large numbers of troops and their dependents dictated where they could be based. Because of the impossibility of supplying the whole army with imported goods, the suitability of local land for food production was also paramount. The need to have reliable sources of supply locally was met by placing veterans on retirement in villae rusticae in frontier zones. This had the effect of controlling those local sources of supply and also satisfying the increasingly expensive needs of the army praemia militiae. The increased warfare and periodic invasions from the reign of Marcus Aurelius especially on the upper Rhine and upper Danube made supply more difficult. The army placed an increasing number of beneficiarii consularis on important points on the transport network to control and direct the flow of army supplies. The more frequent invasions across the frontiers from the third century caused greater dislocation to the agricultural infrastructure not only on the frontiers but deeper into the more settled and richer provinces. This destroyed the sources of local supply and also often the source of imported supply, forcing Roman armies to stay well inside the imperial boundaries more often than before. The loss of their logistic superiority spelt the loss of their military advantage, and the loss of empire.

This thesis addresses pervasive ways in which New Zealanders thought about Jesus during the years from approximately 1900 to 1940. In particular, it considers ways that he appeared within discourse, contexts in which he was especially invoked, and ends for which he was employed. It examines Jesus as a religious icon, but also as a reflexive tool for examining the place of religion in New Zealand culture and society. In this sense, it addresses Jesus as a phenomenon of social and cultural history. The thesis draws on a wide range of sources and methodologies, and is organised thematically into chapters that highlight predominant images of Jesus and important contexts that helped shape them. It considers Jesus in the languages of doctrine and devotion, social reform, and for children. It further assesses images of Jesus' masculinity, and representations of him as an 'anti-Church' prophet. The overarching argument is that Jesus constituted an increasingly important focal point in New Zealand religiosity during the period under investigation. Especially within Protestant Christianity, Jesus became a more important discursive focus and acquired new status as a source of authority. This movement reflected wider social and cultural shifts, particularly related to understandings of the nature of society and notions of personality. The increasingly Jesus-centred orientation of Protestant religiosity was fundamentally an attempt to modernise Christianity and extend its reach into the community. In particular, Jesus was invoked as the simple core of Christianity - the attractive essence of 'true religion'. Jesus-centred religiosity provided evidence of a changing social and cultural situation, demonstrating that religious language and ideals could be sensitive indicators of such shifts. The rise of Jesus as a focal point in religion was a response to change that reoriented Protestant Christianity in the process.

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This thesis is an examination of the importance of army supply in deciding the success and failure of the frontiers of the Roman Empire with particular emphasis on those frontiers in the Rhine-Danube provinces. It will look at logistics as the reason for the end of expansion of the Roman Empire and the frontiers forming where they did. It will also argue that the failure of logistics was a major factor in the collapse of those same frontier defences and the ultimate fall of the western part of the empire. The need to feed and supply large numbers of troops and their dependents dictated where they could be based. Because of the impossibility of supplying the whole army with imported goods, the suitability of local land for food production was also paramount. The need to have reliable sources of supply locally was met by placing veterans on retirement in villae rusticae in frontier zones. This had the effect of controlling those local sources of supply and also satisfying the increasingly expensive needs of the army praemia militiae. The increased warfare and periodic invasions from the reign of Marcus Aurelius especially on the upper Rhine and upper Danube made supply more difficult. The army placed an increasing number of beneficiarii consularis on important points on the transport network to control and direct the flow of army supplies. The more frequent invasions across the frontiers from the third century caused greater dislocation to the agricultural infrastructure not only on the frontiers but deeper into the more settled and richer provinces. This destroyed the sources of local supply and also often the source of imported supply, forcing Roman armies to stay well inside the imperial boundaries more often than before. The loss of their logistic superiority spelt the loss of their military advantage, and the loss of empire.

This thesis examines the origins, deployment, operations and demise of 3NZ Division. It argues that the forces that became the Division were sent to Fiji because of a perceived strategic threat, particularly from airpower, if the islands were seized by the Japanese. The Division was relieved in Fiji by the Americans but returned to the Pacific in 1943 because New Zealand wanted to earn a place at the peace table and the Americans lacked troops in the theatre. Whether the Division was primarily an offensive or garrison unit remained unclear throughout its existence and influenced its constitution. Major General Harold Barrowclough, its commander from 1942 to 1944, had somewhat different strengths from his fellow divisional commander Major General Bernard Freyberg, and operated in a very different environment, with amphibious operations at brigade level. Furthermore, his division operated in an area dominated by the United States Navy rather than the more familiar culture of the British Army. More generally, the relationship between the New Zealanders and the Americans in the South Pacific was complex, generally symbiotic but occasionally unfriendly and even lethal. The perception in New Zealand that service in the South Pacific was less onerous than service in the Mediterranean ignores the often unpleasant and even deadly conditions faced by the soldiers of 3NZ Division. The Division’s combat operations contributed significantly to the neutralisation of the Japanese stronghold of Rabaul. Except for a brief period in 1942, 3NZ Division took second place in New Zealand’s war effort to 2NZ Division. This reflected Wellington’s general inclination to favour Commonwealth over local defence, and, despite some wavering, New Zealand declined to follow Australia and focus its efforts in the Pacific. Lack of manpower to field two divisions resulted in 3NZ Division having only two brigades and growing demands from the Air Force, industry and agriculture ultimately led to its disbandment. Thereafter it faded from the public consciousness and its contribution disregarded. The men and women of 3NZ Division have undeservedly become New Zealand's forgotten warriors.

Rugby league was introduced to New Zealand in 1908 by players desirous of playing a game generally considered to be faster and more skillful than rugby union. Even before its introduction, there were fears within the rugby union community that league would replace union unless steps were taken to make that game more attractive to both play and watch. In the early years of the twentieth century disputes within the New Zealand Rugby Union as to whether to introduce rule changes to make the game more attractive, or to stay with the status quo, had led to division and disharmony. This situation led the promoters of rugby league to be optimistic that their game, once introduced, would quickly replace rugby union as New Zealand's premier winter sport, but they greatly underestimated the hostility they would encounter from rugby union authorities, and this never happened. Investigated in this thesis are the reasons why the high hopes of rugby league's promoters were not fulfilled but how, nevertheless, in the years 1908 to 1920, the game did become established as a working-class sport in parts of the country, particularly the cities of Auckland and Christchurch. Newspapers of the period are used to show where and when league was introduced, where it was, and was not, successful, and to provide evidence of the efforts of rugby union authorities to brand league a professional sport, to threaten its players with banishment from rugby union, to deny league the use of Council owned playing fields, and to deny schoolboys the right to play rugby league at school. Occupations of league players and officials, found from electoral rolls, are used to show that league was an overwhelmingly working-class sport, shunned by the middle-class. The difficulties of establishing the game in small New Zealand towns are related to the geographic and demographic features of the country, and finally, the recovery from the effects of the Great War, which forced most leagues into recess, is shown to owe much to the highly successful postwar tours by international teams from Britain and Australia. Five periods in the development of rugby league are postulated; its introduction in 1908, its near collapse in 1909 and 1910, its expansion during the years 1911 to 1914, the difficulties experienced in the war years 1915 to 1918, and its post-war recovery in 1919 and 1920. The Great War put paid to the real possibility that league would rival union as New Zealand's premier winter team sport, but by 1920 it had recovered sufficiently to become firmly established on the New Zealand sporting scene with its own constituency of players and supporters.

This thesis surveys the growth of the ‘settler church’ in the dioceses of the Anglican Church in New Zealand and, in particular, the development of the Church at local parish level. It examines the formation of parishes, the appointment of clergy, the construction of church buildings and the provision of finance – in other words, all that was required for the provision of ministry in local communities. It is less concerned with the administration of dioceses, the accomplishments of bishops, the activities of General Synod, and constitutional issues, except where these had a bearing on the core issue. Similarly, it does not concern itself with the development of social services, the establishment of schools, and the building of cathedrals. In the same way, it does not give attention to the issue of provision of ministry to and by Maori. That history is too important to be absorbed into this topic. It demands serious treatment from someone with the necessary skills and background. The present writer lacks that competence. Settler Anglicanism ministered to 40 per cent of the population and did so in every town and suburb, and virtually every rural area in the land. No other social institution had such wide coverage. It is not a story of triumph but of dedication and difficulty, of frustration and exasperation, and of challenges and lost opportunities. There was never enough money to meet every need, there were never enough clergy to provide adequate staffing, and often never enough adequate buildings. External forces (including two world wars, a major economic depression and natural disasters) upset carefully laid plans. It was a Church that was ‘in the midst’. It rarely sought to escape from the world; more often its endeavour was to be there with its people, sharing their sorrows and joys, providing the ministrations for the big events of their lives, and nurturing them in regular worship, Sunday schools and women’s groups, and building a sense of community. This was the church of an important section of the community, a community that was at the same time at the heart of New Zealand society and yet aware of its English origins and residual loyalties. On the whole, church members acquiesced in this dilemma for no strong revolutionary spirit was alive in them. The call for a distinctive New Zealand version of Anglicanism was a muted one. They were no less loyal to New Zealand; it was simply that it was a New Zealand that was proud to be part of the British Empire, and a Church that was proud to be part of a Church of England. If any common thread emerges, it is the continuing plea to the members of this Church to raise up from among themselves men who would minister to their own people in their own land – ‘sound, adaptable, missionary-hearted men, who are not afraid to tackle hard problems and difficulties of many kinds’.

This thesis investigates the prehistoric diet of humans and two of their key commensals on Aitutaki using stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes. This technique gives us new insight into the diet of these three groups and results are considered in the context of the development of agricultural systems on Aitutaki, as well as in light of the wider context of cultural developments and environmental change in the Cook Islands and Polynesia as a whole. Ultimately, it allows us to more fully understand the complex interactions between humans and the two largest commensals in order to evaluate the utility of these animals as proxies for humans in dietary analyses. The results indicate that the prehistoric human diet on Aitutaki can be characterised as mixed, dominated by terrestrial plants and marine protein with lesser amounts of terrestrial protein. While the amount of protein eaten by the individuals was very similar, they varied in how much marine or terrestrial protein they ate. The pigs had a slightly more terrestrial diet, with a greater emphasis on plant foods. Their protein intake was more variable and terrestrial in nature than the humans’. Dogs had a higher trophic level, more marine-oriented, diet than either humans or pigs. Like the humans, their diet contained more variation in the source of their protein. Overall, however, the diets of all three groups were very similar. While the overall nature of the human, pig and dog diets, and their relationships to one another, remained relatively constant over time, beginning in the 14th century they show a decline in the amount of fish consumed and had a more terrestrial diet overall. This confirms trends seen in the archaeofaunal assemblages, and throws light on the relationship between environmental change and human subsistence practices in East Polynesia. The similarity of the pig and dog diets to human diet, and the fact that the relationship remained constant over time, demonstrates the usefulness of the Aitutaki commensal animals as proxies for humans in stable isotope analysis. However, the specifics of that relationship vary by species and by place. While the individual dietary variability provides us with new ways of looking at dietary change within populations, it also demonstrates the importance of obtaining as large an assemblage for analysis as possible in order to ensure that samples are representative of the population as a whole.

In this dissertation I examine the relationship between the churches and politics in Vanuatu, focusing in particular on the role of the Christian churches in the independence movement of the 1970s. I also look at the political involvement of the churches in the two years immediately following national independence. The dissertation is based on fieldwork in Vanuatu from April 1981 to June 1982. In Chapter I, I introduce and defend my national, institutional perspective on the churches. In Chapter II, I discuss the history of Vanuatu, focusing specifically on the history of the missions up to the end of the 1960s. Chapter III looks at the independence movement and recent political history. In Chapter IV I examine the relationship between the churches and politics in two contrasting rural areas: at the Catholic mission station of Walarano, Malakula, and at the Presbyterian area of White Sands, Tanna. Chapter V is concerned with the ecumenical movement in the Pacific and looks at the support of the Pacific churches for the independence movement in Vanuatu. Chapters VI to X are parallel histories of the same period. They all look at the involvement of the churches in Vanuatu politics from about the beginning of the 1970s - when the independence movement began - up to national independence on 30 July 1980. However, each chapter is written from a different perspective. Chapter VI documents the political involvement of the Presbyterian Church; Chapter VII is concerned with Bishop Raweliffe and the politics of Anglicanism; Chapter VIII looks at the political role of the Roman Catholic Church in Vanuatu; Chapter IX focuses mostly on the relationship between the Churches of Christ and Nagriamel; and Chapter X takes a look at the ecumenical movement in Vanuatu and the origins and development of the New Hebrides Christian Council. In Chapter XI I examine the post-independence developments in all the major churches. Chapter XII concludes with a discussion of three issues: localisation, independence and unity, both in the churches and in the nation.