The Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research (IIM) is one of the six institutes of the Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (FZD), and contributes the largest part to its Research Program \"Advanced Materials\", mainly in the fields of semiconductor physics and materials research using ion beams. The institute operates a national and international Ion Beam Center, which, in addition to its own scientific activities, makes available fast ion technologies to universities, other research institutes, and industry. Parts of its activities are also dedicated to exploit the infrared/THz free-electron laser at the 40 MeV superconducting electron accelerator ELBE for condensed matter research. For both facilities the institute holds EU grants for funding access of external users.

Reactive Sputtering is a widely used technique in processing of thin compound films. Such films can be sputtered from metal targets, which are comparatively cost efficient. Also the fact that sputtering from metal targets can ccur in the dc mode reduces the cost of the sputtering equipment. To keep the deposition process stable, its necessary to know the effects of target poisoning including its hyteresis behavior. The aim of this work was to nvestigate the evolution of reactive gas coverage on a titanium magnetron target surface, by real time, in-situ ion beam analysis during magnetron sputtering. A cylindrical 2 inch magnetron was used for reactive sputtering of TiN. It was operated in an Ar/N2 gas mixture at achamber pressure of about 3∙10-3 mbar. The argon/nitrogen flux ratio was variated between 0 and 20%. The nitrogen concentration on the target was determinated using the 14N(d, α)12C, nuclear reaction at a deuterium beam energy of 1.8 MeV. Depending on the adjusted nitrogen flow the target incorporation varies between 0 and about 1∙1016 N∙cm-2. Further the expected hysteresis behaviour ofnitrogen partial pressure, target voltage and nitrogen concentration at increasing/decreasing nitrogen gas flow is confirmed. The lateral distribution of nitrogen was measured across the diameter of target surface. In the zone of higher erosion (the \"race track\") the nitrogen concentration is 50% lower than in the middle or the edge of the target. A deposition zone in the center of the target could not be detected. By increasing the nitrogen flow into the chamber a saturation in nitrogen content in the target was found at an Ar/N2 flow ratio of about 10%. Assuming nitrogen implantation with a depth of 2.5 nm under the influence of typical target voltage during magnetron sputtering, this saturation is at a concentration value where stoichiomtric TiN is formed. Within the precision of the measurements, a mobile fraction of nitrogen could not determined. The concentration in the target remains unchanged after switching off the magnetron.

Die skalenübergreifende Modellierung der strahleninduzierten Schädigung von RDB-Stahl von den Primärschäden auf der atomaren Skala bis zu den Änderungen der mechanischen Eigenschaften auf der Makroskala trägt wesentlich zu einem ver¬besserten Verständnis des Phänomens der Neutronenversprödung bei. Sie kann sich zukünftig zu einem Bestandteil der Sicherheitsbewertung des RDB entwickeln. Der gewählte zweistufige Modellierungsansatz beruht auf der Kopplung eines ratentheoretischen Moduls zur Voraussage der Größenverteilung der strahlen¬induzierten Defekt-Fremdatom-Cluster mit einem Härtungs-Modul zur Voraussage der strahleninduzierten Streckgrenzenerhöhung. Gegenstand der Untersuchungen sind die Weiterentwicklung und Validierung entsprechender Software-Komponenten. Die Validierung erfolgt durch Gegenüberstellung der Berechnungsergebnisse mit Resultaten von Neutronenkleinwinkelstreumessungen und Zugversuchen an neutronenbestrahlten RDB-Stählen. Der entwickelte ratentheoretische Modul ermöglicht es, die Größe, Konzentration und Zusammensetzung gemischter Cu-Leerstellen-Cluster über die für RDB-Stähle relevanten Größenbereiche von bis zu 10000 Atomen und Zeitbereiche von bis zu mehreren 10 Jahren zu verfolgen. Die Verbindung der Ratentheorie zur Härtungs¬modellierung beruht auf der Übergabe von berechneten mittleren Hindernis¬abständen und -stärken. Die Validierung der numerischen Werkzeuge hat ergeben, dass wesentliche Tendenzen der strahleninduzierten Streckgrenzenerhöhung von Cu-haltigen und Cu-armen RDB-Stählen richtig wiedergegeben werden. Erste Ansätze zur Erfassung des Einflusses des Legierungselements Nickel im Rahmen der Ratentheorie und der Härtungsmodellierung wurden verwirklicht.

Die vorliegende Arbeit entstand im Rahmen einer Kooperation des Forschungszentrums Dresden-Rossendorf mit Qimonda Dresden GmbH & Co. OHG. Mithilfe der hochauflösenden Rutherford-Streuspektrometrie (HR-RBS) wurden das Diffusionsverhalten und Schichtwachstum von ZrO2 auf SiO2 und TiN im Anfangsstadium untersucht. Auf Grund der exzellenten Tiefenauflösung von 0,3 nm an der Oberfläche stand die Analyse von Konzentrationsprofilen in ultradünnen Schichten, respektive an deren Grenzflächen im Vordergrund. Zur qualitativen Verbesserung der Messergebnisse wurde erstmals ein zweidimensionaler positionsempfindlicher Halbleiterdetektor in den Aufbau der HR-RBS implementiert und charakterisiert. Außerdem wurde ein Messverfahren in Betrieb genommen, das mögliche Schädigungen durch den Ioneneintrag in die Messprobe minimiert. Durch die Optimierung der experimentellen Bedingungen und die Entwicklung eines Programmpaketes zur Unterstützung des Analysten konnte ein effizienter Routine-Messablauf erstellt werden. Im Moment einer binären Kollision zwischen einfallendem Ion und Targetelement kommt es bei kleinem Stoßparameter zu Veränderungen des Ladungszustands der gestreuten Ionen, insbesondere durch die abrupte Geschwindigkeitsänderung des Projektils und der Überlappung der Elektronenwolken. Bei der HR-RBS mit Energie separierendem Dipolmagneten muss zur Interpretation von Streuspektren die Ladungszustandsverteilung der gestreuten Projektile bekannt sein. Erstmalig konnte eine signifikante Abhängigkeit der Ladungszustandsverteilung gestreuter C-Ionen sowohl von der Schichtdicke als auch der Ordnungszahl des detektierten Targetelements, hier der vierten Nebengruppe, nachgewiesen werden. Diese gewonnen Erkenntnisse ermöglichten systematische Untersuchungen zum ZrO2-Schichtwachstum im Anfangsstadium. Zur Herstellung der ZrO2-Schichten wurde die Atomlagenabscheidung (ALD) verwendet. Anhand der nachgewiesenen Agglomeration von ZrO2 auf nativen SiO2 wurde mithilfe der Rasterkraftmikroskopie (AFM) zur Bestimmung von Oberflächenrauigkeiten eine Methode konzipiert, welche die Auswirkung lokaler Schichtdickeninhomogenitäten auf die niederenergetische Flanke eines Streuspektrums berücksichtigt. Auf dieser Grundlage durchgeführte Simulationsrechnungen ergeben, dass keine Diffusion von Zr in die darunter liegende Schicht stattfand, jedoch eine ZrSiO4-Grenzflächenschicht existiert. Für das Wachstum von ZrO2 auf TiN wird aus den hoch aufgelösten Streuspektren ein völlig anderes Verhalten abgeleitet. Messungen zu Oberflächentopografien der TiN-Schicht liefern nicht zu vernachlässigende Werte für die Rauigkeit. Um den Einfluss der Oberflächenrauigkeit auf die Form des hoch aufgelösten Spektrums erfassen zu können, wurde eine Software entwickelt. Auf Basis von AFM-Messungen ermöglicht dieses Programm das Extrahieren einer Energieverteilung aus den Weglängen von ausschließlich an der Oberfläche gestreuten Ionen. Unter Berücksichtigung des Effekts der Oberflächenrauigkeit auf die HR-RBS Spektrenform konnte die Diffusion von Zr in das polykristalline TiN erstmals verifiziert werden. Die Beobachtungen weisen daraufhin, dass bereits nach dem ersten ALD-Zyklus ein geringer Anteil der deponierten Zr-Atome bis in eine Tiefe von etwa 3 nm in das TiN diffundiert. Die vorläufigen Ergebnisse legen Korngrenzendiffusion nahe.

The idea of terahertz-time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) is to exploit a single cycle, spectrally broad THz radiation pulse to gain insight into the response of matter. Photoconductive devices and nonlinear crystals are utilized in both the generation as well as the coherent detection of THz radiation. The relatively high cost and the complexity of commonly used titanium-sapphire lasers hinder a more widespread use of pulsed THz systems for commercial applications. Er-doped femtosecond fiber lasers operating at 1.55 μm could offer a viable alternative. In this thesis nonlinear crystals and photoconductive emitters are discussed for excitation in the near infrared (NIR) window of between 800 nm to 1550 nm. The main focus of this thesis is a detailed study of substrate materials for an interdigitated photoconductive antenna. Photoconductive antennas with microstructured electrodes provide high electric acceleration fields at moderate voltages because of small electrode separations. The scalability of these devices allows for large active areas in the mm^2 range, which are sufficient for excitation at large optical powers. In comparison with conventional emitter structures, these antennas have more favourable characteristics regarding THz power, spectral properties, and ease of handling. Depending on the utilized substrate material, photoconductive antennas can then be operated using different excitation wavelengths. By employing substrates with short carrier trapping times these antennas can be operated as THz-detectors. Moreover the design of electrode structures for generating radially and azimuthally polarized THz waves are presented. A second topic deals with the signal analysis and signal interpretation of THz pulses transmitted through several material systems. These experiments show the potential for tomographic and spectroscopic applications. The third part deals with THz emission by frequency mixing in nonlinear organic and inorganic crystals. Hereby the focus is on polaritonic phase matching in GaAs. Furthermore, indications of THz tunability by the excitation wavelength were found by utilizing waveguide structures. However, the observed tuning range is much lower then theoretically predicted. Specific reasons for this are discussed.

More than hundred years after the discovery of X-rays different kinds of ionizing radiation are ubiquitous in medicine, applied to clinical diagnostics and cancer treatment as well. Irrespective of their nature, the widespread application of radiation implies its precise dosimetric characterization and detailed knowledge of the radiobiological effects induced in cancerous and normal tissue. Starting with in vitro cell irradiation experiments, which define basic parameters for the subsequent tissue and animal studies, the whole multi-stage process is completed by clinical trials that translate the results of fundamental research into clinical application. In this context, the present dissertation focuses on the establishment of radiobiological in vitro cell experiments at unconventional, but clinical relevant radiation qualities. In the first part of the present work the energy dependent biological effectiveness of photons was studied examining low-energy X-rays (≤ 50 keV), as used for mammography, and high-energy photons (≥ 20 MeV) as proposed for future radiotherapy. Cell irradiation experiments have been performed at conventional X-ray tubes providing low-energy photons and 200 kV reference radiation as well. In parallel, unconventional quasi-monochromatic channeling X-rays and high-energy bremsstrahlung available at the radiation source ELBE of the Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf were considered for radiobiological experimentation. For their precise dosimetric characterization dosimeters based on the thermally stimulated emission of exoelectrons and on radiochromic films were evaluated, whereas just the latter was found to be suitable for the determination of absolute doses and spatial dose distributions at cell position. Standard ionization chambers were deployed for the online control of cell irradiation experiments. Radiobiological effects were analyzed in human mammary epithelial cells on different subcellular levels revealing an increasing amount of damage for decreasing photon energy. For this reason, the assumed photon energy dependence was reconfirmed for a cell line other than human lymphocytes, an important finding that was discussed on the 2007 Retreat of the German Commission on Radiological Protection. After successful finalization of the photon experiments the focus of the present dissertation was directed to the realization of in vitro cell irradiation experiments with laser-accelerated electrons. This research was carried out in the frame of the project onCOOPtics that aims on the development of laser-based particle accelerators, which promise accelerators of potentially compact size and more cost-effectiveness suitable for a widespread medical application, especially for high precision hadron therapy. The unique properties, i.e., the ultrashort bunch length and resultant ultrahigh pulse dose rate, of these unconventional particle accelerators demand for extensive investigations with respect to potential effects on the dosimetric and radiobiological characterization. Based on the experiences gained at ELBE first experiments on the radiobiological characterization of laser-accelerated electrons have been performed at the Jena Titanium:Sapphire laser system. After beam optimization, a sophisticated dosimetry system was established that allow for the online control of the beam parameters and for the controlled delivery of dose to the cell sample. Finally, worldwide first systematic in vitro cell irradiation experiments were carried out resulting in a reduced biological effectiveness for laser-accelerated electrons relative to the 200 kV X-ray reference, irrespectively on the biological effect and cell lines examined. These successful results are the basis for future in vivo studies and experiments with laser-accelerated protons.

Plasmonic properties of self-assembled silver nanoparticles/nanowires array on periodically patterned Si (100) substrate are reported with special attention on the mechanism of nanoparticles self-assembly. The advantage of this bottom up approach over other self-assembling and lithographic methods is the flexibility to tune array periodicity down to 20 nm with interparticle gaps as low as 5 nm along the ripple. Ripple pattern have shallow modulation (~2 nm) still particles self-assembly was observed in non-shadow deposition. Therefore adatoms diffusion and kinetics is important on ripple surface for the self-assembly. PVD e-beam evaporation method used for deposition has proven to be superior to sputter deposition due to lower incident flux and lower atom energy. It was found that particles self-assembly largely dependent on angle of incidence, substrate temperature, and deposition direction due to ripple asymmetric tilt. Ostwald ripening observed during annealing on ripples substrate has striking dependency on ripple periodicity and was found to be different compared to Ostwald ripening on flat Si surface. In-situ RBS measurements of deposited silver on flat and rippled substrate confirmed different sticking of atoms on the two surfaces. The difference between maximum and minimum of the calculated local flux show a peak at an incidence angle of 70o with respect to surface normal. This explains the best alignment of particles at this angle of incidence compare to others. Self-assembled nanoparticles are optically anisotropic, i.e. they exhibit a direction dependent shift in LSPR. The reason of the observed anisotropy is a direction dependent plasmonic coupling. Different in plane and out of the plane dielectric coefficients calculated by modelling Jones matrix elements, confirms that nanoparticle/nanowire array are biaxial anisotropic (ex ¹ ey ¹ ez). The nanoparticles are predominantly insulating while nanowires are both metallic and insulating depending on the dimension. Silver nanoparticles/nanowires self-aligned on pre-patterned rippled substrate are presented for the first time as an active SERS substrate. Anisotropic SERS response in such arrays is attributed to different field enhancement along and across the ripples. Strong plasmonic coupling in elongated nanoparticles chain results in significantly higher SERS intensity then spherical nanoparticles/nanowires and non-ordered nanoparticles. Higher SERS intensity across the nanowires array in comparison to along the array (bulk silver) confirms electromagnetic field enhancement (hot-junction) is responsible for SERS phenomenon. Self-assembly of cobalt nanoparticle on ripple pattern substrate is also reported. Due to less adatom mobility and higher sticking cobalt self-assembly is possible only at much higher temperature. A strong uniaxial magnetic anisotropy was observed not observed for non ordered cobalt particles.

The Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research (IIM) is one of the six institutes of what was called Forschungszentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (FZD) until the end of 2010, but since this year 2011 is called “Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR)”. This change reflects a significant transition for us: it means that the research center is now member of the Helmholtz Association of German Research Centers (HGF), i.e., a real government research laboratory, with the mission to perform research to solve fundamental societal problems. Often to date those are called the “Grand Challenges” and comprise issues such as energy supply and resources, health in relation to aging population, future mobility, or the information society. This Annual Report already bears the new corporate design, adequate for the time of its issueing, but reports results from the year 2010, when we were still member of the Leibniz Association (WGL). Our research is still mainly in the fields of semiconductor physics and materials science using ion beams. The institute operates a national and international Ion Beam Center, which, in addition to its own scientific activities, makes available fast ion technologies to universities, other research institutes, and industry. Parts of its activities are also dedicated to exploit the infrared/THz freeelectron laser at the 40 MeV superconducting electron accelerator ELBE for condensed matter research. For both facilities the institute holds EU grants for funding access of external users.

Im Rahmen eines vom Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung geförderten Projektes (Förderkennzeichen 02NUK010A) wurden an einem senkrechten, mit Flüssigkeit umströmten und beheizten Stabbündel gammadensitometrische Gasgehaltsmessungen durchgeführt. Es wurden zwei Messpositionen, zwei Volumenstromraten des umströmenden Fluides, zwei Unterkühlungswerte und elf Wärmestromdichten zur Messung gewählt. Der Bericht umfasst die Beschreibung des Versuchsstandes, die Messmethodik, Ergebnisse und deren Interpretation. Im Detail wird ebenfalls die Messunsicherheit bewertet.

The majority of the light elements up to iron (Fe) are formed by successive rounds of thermonuclear fusion burning in the stellar interiors. The nuclei heavier than iron (Z>26) are being synthesized mainly by neutron-capture reactions - the astrophysical r-and s-processes. There are 35 neutron deficient stable isotopes between Se and Hg which are shielded from the rapid neutron capture by stable isobars. These so-called p-nuclei are produced in explosive stellar environments via photodisintegration reactions like (γ,n), (γ,p) and (γ,α) on r- or s-seed nuclei. The reaction rates of the p-nuclei are mostly based on theoretical parameterizations using statistical model calculations. At the bremsstrahlung facility of the superconducting electron accelerator ELBE, photon-induced reactions of the p-nuclei are being studied. In the scope of this thesis work, photodisintegration measurements of the p-nuclei 92Mo and 144Sm have been performed via the photoactivation technique. The residual nuclei resulting from photoactivation were studied via γ-ray spectroscopy. For the decay measurements of short-lived nuclei, a pneumatic delivery system has been used. In the case of 144Sm(°,p) and 144Sm(γ,α) reactions, the activated samarium samples with very low counting statistics were measured at the underground laboratory "Felsenkeller" in Dresden. The experimental activation yields for the 144Sm (γ,n), (γ,p) and (γ, α) and the 92Mo(γ,α) reactions were determined. It is to be emphasized that the (γ,p) and (γ,α) reactions were measured for the first time in a laboratory at astrophysically relevant energies. In all the mentioned experiments, special care was taken to determine the endpoint energy of the bremsstrahlung spectra by using the photodisintegration of deuteron. The 197Au(γ,n)196Au reaction has been established as an activation standard. The photoactivation yields for the 197Au(γ,n) and 144Sm(γ,n) reactions have been compared to the yield calculated using cross sections from previous photoneutron experiments. A comparison of the two data sets leads to a conclusion on the inaccuracies in previous data. The statistical uncertainties involved in the activation experiments are very small except for the case of decay spectra with weak counting statistics. The systematic uncertainties are mostly from the experimental determination of photon flux. A detailed discussion of the overall uncertainty is provided. Hauser-Feshbach statistical model calculations using TALYS and NON-SMOKER codes have been performed for all the concerned reactions. The experimental activation yields, in general, agree within a factor of 2 to the simulated yields using statistical model predictions. The sensitivity of the model codes to the nuclear physics inputs like optical-model potentials, nuclear level densities and γ-ray strength functions has been tested.