It is well known that ,water supply and sanitation remain grosslvdeftcient in low-income districts of cities throughout sub-Saharan Africa, with likely severe negative impacts on health. Most low-income communities depend on non-networked (on-site) sanitation; few African cities have an extensive sewerage system, but nonetheless city-wide sewerage is widely seen as the long-term aim by municipal planners. In recent years, some sanitation specialists have argued that low-cost sewerage can be an appropriate solution for African cities; others that sewerage is inappropriate, because of its high financial cost, requirement for well-resourced local governance, and purportedly negative environmental impacts. Against this backdrop, this thesis sets out to assess whether sewerage can be an appropriate solution for African cities, and if so in what circumstances. An expert opinion survey early in the research indicated that most sanitation specialists consider sewerage to be an appropriate solution in some situations. A meta-analysis of existing health impact studies confirmed that sewerage interventions typically have a substantial positive impact on health. A detailed outcome evaluation of the PAQPUD settled sewerage project in Dakar (Senegal) was performed, and this work was supported by shorter evaluations of sewerage pro-poorness in Accra (Ghana) and Nairobi (Kenya), and by a review of outcome evaluations of previous sewerage projects in African cities. This research concludes that sewerage can certainly be an appropriate solution for high-density low-income districts of African cities; the key requirement is that governance standards and institutional capacity be sufficient to ensure effective planning, implementation and long-term management of a networked sewerage system. Common "environmental" arguments against sewerage (including that it will substantially increase domestic water use) are judged to be over-stated. Capital cost will invariably be higher than for non-networked systems: but in certain habitat types, sewerage may be the only solution that prevents disease. It is difficult to generate geographically generalisable estimates of the lifecycle costs of sewerage, and impossible to achieve generalisable cost-benefit relations: so comparative cost assessments need to be done in specific contexts. The thesis offers recommendations for effective planning and implementation of sewerage programmes serving low-income districts of African cities, stressing the importance of approaches ensuring high connection rates and genuine pro- poor targeting.

The control strategy for sewer pumping stations currently used by Anglian Water, and most other UK water service providers, is classical on/off switching. This is based simply on the fluid level in the inlet wet well. Such local control can lead to poor performance across a variety of indicators, including energy costs, hydraulic performance and efficiency. Despite the listed issues, the Anglian Water sewerage system is operating at a satisfactory level in terms of conveying flow to treatment. In clean water systems, artificial intelligence and other techniques have been used to optimise pump scheduling and research is now needed to provide similar efficiency gains for sewerage systems. Artificial intelligence is widely used for different control and automation applications in many areas. There is a limited use of optimal control in clean water systems but little or no research has been done to apply these techniques to waste water. To the best of author's knowledge, this research is the first time that within the water sector that Fuzzy logic (FL) has been applied specifically to the control of pumping in sewer networks. This thesis presents details of a FL system developed in dry weather flow (DWF) for control of sewer pumping stations for energy and costs savings. This research was a collaborative project between Anglian Water and the University of Sheffield. The FL controller outperformed the Base case representing current practice in terms of increased energy and costs savings and a lower number of pump s'Aitches. The functionalities of the FL controller were achieved by: • A Genetic Algorithm was used to tune the FL controller by determining the base lengths of the Membership Functions and the locations of the peaks (vertices of the membership functions' two non-base edges). • The Rule Base impact on level control was investigated and representative Rule base designs were chosen for each of the electrical tariffs. • The FIS controller was extended to include pump efficiency. Pump efficiency was then taken into consideration by running close to the optimal pump operating point, not taking into account long term pump degradation. • An ANN prediction model was developed for DWF inflow prediction which was trained, tested and validated on flow data obtained from survey. The ANN model has just two inputs (population and trade flow) and thus a flow survey is no longer required in order to tune the FL controller. • The FL controller represents a general solution which can be successfully transferred to another pumping station with different characteristics: wet well dimensions, min/max levels and different pumps. Customarisation is needed in terms of physical characteristics of pump station. Simulation results were confinned by the live trial. • The FL system was tested for its robustness using a wet weather event flow profiles. It continued to demonstrate an ability to supply energy cost savings under wet weather conditions albeit not as optimally as for DWF. Wet weather flow (WWF) was out of a scope of this research. FL control system would switch to fail-safe operating mode during WWF event (on/off control timer controlled mode with the pump switch on point sets to 90% of maximal level in the wet well). In summary, Anglian Water currently spends £13 million annually on energy for wastewater pumping. Around 10% of pumping stations within Anglian Water could eventually benefit from intelligent control. Energy savings from intelligent control are expected to deliver 5% or better, based on the results of this PhD research project. This would reduce the annual energy bill of the company by a third of a million pounds.

De nombreuses molécules médicamenteuses ne sont pas traitées efficacement par les techniques classiques utilisées dans les stations d'épuration et s’accumulent dans les milieux naturels. L’objectif de cette thèse a été de développer un procédé d’oxydation avancée utilisant un plasma non thermique généré par décharge électrique pour le traitement de molécules médicamenteuses et d’identifier le schéma de dégradation d’une des molécules d’étude, à savoir le paracétamol. Les traitements ont été réalisés à l’aide de deux réacteurs : un réacteur multi-pointes avec le plasma au contact direct du liquide à traiter et un réacteur fil-cylindre avec le plasma en amont du liquide à traiter. Des taux de conversion supérieurs à 80% ont pu être obtenus avec des rendements énergétiques, qui peuvent atteindre 8g/kWh et 39 g/kWh pour le paracétamol et l’ésoméprazole, respectivement. La décharge électrique créée entre une pointe et le liquide a été caractérisée par la spectroscopie d’émission optique afin d’observer la présence des espèces oxydantes produites par le plasma et d’estimer la température du milieu faiblement ionisé. Les espèces produites dans le liquide lors de la dégradation du paracétamol et de l’ésoméprazole qui ont été identifiées par la technique HRMS, entre autres, sont principalement des acides carboxyliques ainsi que des produits azotés. L’identification des voies de production pour la formation des principaux produits ont été étudiés particulièrement à l’aide de nombreuses méthodes chimiques comme HPLC/MS, MS/MS, et de différents marquages de paracétamol. Il a été prouvé que les principaux acides carboxyliques produits proviennent de la rupture du cycle aromatique. En conclusion, cette étude nous a permis d’obtenir des rendements énergétiques de traitement des deux molécules d’étude comparables à ceux retrouvés en littérature, et surtout d’établir un chemin de dégradation du paracétamol. / Many drug molecules are not effectively treated by conventional techniques used in wastewater treatment plants and accumulate in natural environments. The objective of this thesis was to develop an advanced oxidation process using a non-thermal plasma generated by electric discharge for the treatment of drug molecules (paracetamol and esomeprazole). The NTP treatments were carried out using two reactors: a multiple needle-to-plate reactor with the plasma in direct contact with the liquid to be treated and a wire-cylinder reactor with the plasma up stream of the liquid to be treated. Conversion rates higher than 80% have been obtained with energy yields, which can reach 8 g/kWh and 39 g/kWh for paracetamol and esomeprazole, respectively. The electrical discharge created between the need leand the liquid has been characterized by optical emission spectroscopy to observe the presence of the oxidative species produced by the plasma and to estimate the temperature of the ionized medium. The species produced in the liquid during the degradation of paracetamol and esomeprazole have been identified by the HRMS technique. The produced species, are mainly carboxylic acids as well as nitrogen products. The identification of production pathways for the formation of the main products has been studied particularly using numerous chemical methods such as HPLC/MS, MS/MS, and different labelling of paracetamol. It has been proven that the main carboxylic acids produced come from the breaking of the aromatic ring. In conclusion, this study allowed us to obtain energy efficiencies of treatment of the two study molecules comparable to those found in literature, and especially to establish a pathways of degradation of paracetamol.

Dans les sédiments marins, la conversion de l'azote en diazote est traditionnellement supposée avoir lieu via le processus de nitrification-dénitrification bactérienne ou par l'oxydation anaérobie de l'ammonium (anammox). Mais, les faibles concentrations d'ammonium observées dans les sédiments riches en oxyde de manganèse suggèrent l'existence d'une voie alternative qui pourrait avoir lieu via un processus chimique. Parmi les oxydes de manganèse, la birnessite est la forme la plus existante dans les sols et les sédiments. C'est un oxyde lamellaire contenant à la fois du Mn (III) et du Mn (IV) dans sa structure et caractérisé par sa haute réactivité. Ce travail vise à mettre en évidence la nature de la réactivité de la Na-birnessite triclinique synthétisée par une méthode redox avec l'ammonium. Cette interaction était soupçonnée, dans des études antérieures, d'impliquer un mécanisme d'échange cationique seulement. La première partie de ce manuscrit est consacrée à la synthèse d'une birnessite pure via un processus redox. Le rapport Mn (VII): Mn (II) de 0,33 a été choisi et trois méthodes ont été utilisées consistant en un mélange rapide sous agitation vigoureuse de deux des trois réactifs et ensuite en l’ajout goutte à goutte du troisième. L'étude de paramètres réactionnels (ordre de mélange des réactifs, temps d'addition du troisième réactif, méthode de vieillissement, nature du cation utilisé et présence ou absence de l'oxygène dissous) a mis en évidence le rôle clé de l'oxygène dans la formation de la birnessite pure et un mécanisme de formation a été proposé. La deuxième partie a porté sur l'interaction de la Na-birnessite avec l'ammonium. L'étude de nombreux paramètres réactionnels (concentration initiale en ammonium, temps de contact, pH et température du milieu), en suivant à la fois les changements solides et liquides, a permis de démontrer que la birnessite n'agit pas seulement comme échangeuse cationique envers NH4+. En effet, l'analyse de surface réalisée par XPS a montré que les spectres N1s sont caractérisés par l'existence de deux environnements différents : un attribuable à NH4+ dans le domaine interfoliaire et le second à une espèce N chimisorbée. Des transformations structurales et chimiques ont été observées sur la birnessite avec un déficit de bilan massique d'azote. L’analyse des espèces en solution : NH4+, Na+, Mn2+, NO3- et NO2- et solides (état d'oxydation moyen de Mn, capacité d'échange cationique, teneur en azote solide et évolution de symétrie identifiée par DRX et FTIR) indique sans ambiguïté que NH4+ réagit chimiquement avec la birnessite / In marine and sediments, the conversion of combined nitrogen to dinitrogen is traditionally assumed to take place via the coupled bacterial nitrification-denitrification process or through the anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox). But, the low ammonium concentrations observed in the Mn-oxide rich sediments suggested the existence of an alternative pathway that might take place via a chemical process. Among manganese oxide, birnessite was found to be the most existing form in soils and sediments. It is a lamellar oxide containing both Mn(III) and Mn(IV) in its structure and characterized by its high reactivity. This work aims to highlight the nature of the reactivity of the triclinic Na-birnessite synthesized via a redox method with ammonium. This interaction was suspected, in previous studies, to involve a cationic exchange mechanism only. The first part of this manuscript is dedicated to the synthesis of a pure phase birnessite via a redox process. The Mn(VII):Mn(II) ratio of 0.33 was chosen and three methods were used consisting in a quick mixing under vigorous stirring of two of the three reagents and then on the dropwise addition of the third one. The study of numerous reaction parameters (the order of reagent mixing, the addition time of the third reagent, the aging method, the nature of the cation used and the dissolved oxygen effect) highlighted the key role played by oxygen in the formation of a pure birnessite and a mechanism of formation has been proposed. The second part focused on the interaction of Na-birnessite with ammonium. The study of numerous reaction parameters (the initial ammonium concentration, the contact time, the pH and the temperature of the medium) by monitoring both solid and liquid changes allowed us to demonstrate that birnessite is not only acting as a cationic exchanger toward NH4+. Indeed, the surface analysis performed by XPS showed that N1s spectra are characterized by the existence of two different environments: one assignable to an interlayer NH4+ and the second to a chemisorbed N-species. Structural and chemical transformations were observed on birnessite with nitrogen mass balance deficit. The monitoring of NH4+, Na+, Mn2+, NO3- and NO2- and solid changes (average oxidation state of Mn, cation exchange capacity, solid nitrogen content and symmetry evolution identified by XRD and FTIR) indicate unambiguously that NH4+ reacts chemically with the birnessite

Une part importante de la détérioration des réseaux d’assainissement en matériau cimentaire est d’origine biologique. Dans ce contexte, les matériaux à base de ciment alumineux ont montré une meilleure durabilité que ceux à base de ciment Portland ordinaire, couramment utilisés. Les hypothèses de la littérature qui expliqueraient cette meilleure résistance sont centré sur l’aluminium (présent à plus de 50% dans les ciments alumineux pour seulement 5% dans les ciments Portland). L’objectif de cette thèse est de caractériser et hiérarchiser les mécanismes de résistance des matériaux cimentaires lors de la biodétérioration. Cela permettra de comprendre le rôle de l’aluminium dans les interactions entre les microorganismes et les matériaux cimentaires. Après des études en réacteur et des tests de biodétérioration de pâte de ciments en laboratoire, il semblerait que la principale cause de résistance est due à la réactivité des matrices cimentaires plus qu’à un effet inhibiteur de l’aluminium ou du matériau sur les microorganismes. / An important part of the deterioration observed in concrete sewer networks is due to biological activity. In this context, calcium aluminate cement (CAC) based material has shown a better durability than ordinary Portland cement, usually used in such context. In literature, hypothesis explaining the better resistance are focused on aluminium. The aim of the project is to characterize the role of aluminium in the interactions between cementitious material and microorganisms. Reactor study and Lab scale aggressive biodeterioration protocol of cementitious material revealed that the better resistance of CAC is due to their lower reactivity and not to a bacteriostatic effect of the material on the microorganisms.

Dans cette thèse, la biodégradation et le devenir des matières organiques lentement biodégradables contenues dans les eaux usées ont été étudiés. La thèse s’est particulièrement penchée sur l’étude du processus d’hydrolyse dans la mesure où plusieurs auteurs considèrent qu’il s’agit du processus limitant durant la dégradation des matières considérées. L’analyse des résultats de la littérature en complétés de ceux que nous avons obtenu en laboratoire a permis d’identifier et ainsi souligner les manques par rapport aux mécanismes qui régissent la dégradation des matières organiques lentement biodégradables. Ensuite, nous avons confronté ces résultats expérimentaux (expériences réalisées en batch sur des substrats type « particules décantables ») aux modèles conventionnels du traitement des eaux mais aussi à d’autres modèles moins usuels afin d’évaluer les performances de ces derniers à décrire l’hydrolyse des différents substrats. La difficulté de ces modèles à décrire la diversité des situations rencontrées nous a amené à développer un nouveau modèle qui tient compte des propriétés physiques et géométriques du substrat et qui permettrait d’améliorer la caractérisation du processus d’hydrolyse. Enfin, nous nous sommes intéressés à la distinction d’une biomasse hydrolytique dans la masse cellulaire totale et de déterminer son origine. Il a été clairement démontré que l’hydrolyse des PSS dans les procédés à boues activées était plus impactée par les bactéries indigènes, initialement adsorbées dans le réseau, que par les bactéries exogènes, en provenance d’un inoculum de boue activées. / In this work, the fate and biodegradation of slowly biodegradable organic matter contained in wastewaters were investigated. The hydrolysis process was particularly targeted as many sources proved that it controls the fate of the considered substrate. First, a synopsis of the literature results related to this topic as well as internal results were investigated especially in terms of respirometric aspects (OUR measurement) in order to identify differences and/or similarities between the experiments and, thus, address gaps in knowledge of the mechanisms that are involved in the hydrolysis of this matter. Then, in the second part of this thesis, experimental data from batch respirometric tests (performed in our laboratory), involving typical slowly biodegradable matter that are found in wastewaters (e.g. Particulate settleable solids, toilet paper…), were confronted to conventional (IAWQ models) and non-conventional models to evaluate the efficiencies of those models to describe the hydrolysis step. In the third part of this thesis, based on hypotheses, a novel conceptual framework was developed in order to enhance the description of the hydrolysis process. The physical properties (density, size, shape) of the components (bacteria and substrate) were taken into account in this model. Finally, in the fourth and last chapter of this thesis, the specific role of each bacterial population involved in the biodegradation of slowly biodegradable organic matter was assessed. It was here clearly evidenced that the hydrolysis of PSS in activated sludge processes appears more influenced by the initially adsorbed bacteria onto the sewage than by the added AS-inoculum concentration.