This thesis examines Lorenzo Monaco's altarpiece the Man of Sorrows with the Virgin, St. John the Evangelist, with the Emblems and Episodes of the Passion, (c. 1404) under historical, religious, political, and liturgical rubrics. While comparing various depictions of the Man of Sorrows, this project places Lorenzo Monaco's unique interpretation within the context of events surrounding the painting's conception and realization. With particular attention to Lorenzo's distinctive composition, techniques and juxtaposition of imagery, this study shows that his Man of Sorrows in fact conveys a complex message about Florentine society in Late Gothic times.

El constante crecimiento de la urbanización de las ciudades hace necesaria una continua expansión de los servicios públicos municipales hacia las zonas recién urbanizadas. El coste del mantenimiento de las infraestructuras o servicios urbanos asociados está asociado a la distribución de los viales y espacios libres. Por ello la forma urbana afecta a la morfología de los elementos físicos del servicio, y por tanto incide sobre su balance económico de explotación. Dado que la estructura de la ciudad y particularmente la de sus espacios públicos es muy rígida en el tiempo, tiene gran trascendencia el adecuado conocimiento de las relaciones que vinculan la ordenación urbanística de un ámbito con los futuros ingresos y gastos generados en la gestión de los servicios públicos asociados. Con objeto de definir y cuantificar estos nexos de unión entre urbanismo y Haciendas Locales, se ha procedido a seleccionar de entre todas las competencias municipales aquellas relacionadas con el territorio. Globalmente se ha obtenido que, de media, el 41% de los ingresos y el 28% de los gastos corrientes del municipio se destinan a servicios íntimamente ligados a la ordenación urbanística. En un segundo nivel de escala, se ha analizado el rol de cada una de las variables urbanísticas con incidencia en el balance económico de explotación de los servicios públicos municipales en zonas residenciales. Se ha encontrado que la edificabilidad, el valor de las propiedades y la densidad de viviendas serían los determinantes urbanísticos de los ingresos municipales, mientras que la eficiencia lineal, la eficiencia superficial y la densidad lo serían en el paso de los gastos. A partir de las variables anteriores se han podido estimar las funciones de ingreso y de gasto corriente municipal para zonas de nuevo desarrollo, así como los umbrales urbanísticos de la sostenibilidad económica de los nuevos crecimientos urbanísticos. Finalmente, se ha estudiado la elasticidad del balance económico municipal en los nuevos sectores urbanizados frente a la existencia de parcelas sin edificar, viviendas vacías y segundas residencias, observándose que todas las situaciones anteriores pueden derivar en enormes variaciones de ingresos y gastos sobre los teóricos previstos. / El constant creixement de la urbanització de les ciutats fa necessària una contínua expansió dels serveis públics municipals cap a les zones recentment urbanitzades. El cost del manteniment de les infraestructures o serveis urbans associats està associat a la distribució dels vials i espais lliures. Per això la forma urbana afecta a la morfologia dels elements físics del servei, i per tant incideix sobre el seu balanç econòmic d'explotació. Atès que l'estructura de la ciutat i particularment la dels seus espais públics és molt rígida en el temps, té gran transcendència l'adequat coneixement de les relacions que vinculen l'ordenació urbanística d'un àmbit amb els futurs ingressos i despeses generades en la gestió dels serveis públics associats. A fi de definir i quantificar aquests nexes d'unió entre urbanisme i Hisendes Locals, s'ha procedit a seleccionar d'entre totes les competències municipals aquelles relacionades amb el territori. Globalment s'ha obtingut que, de mitjana, el 41% dels ingressos i el 28% de les despeses corrents del municipi es destinen a serveis íntimament lligats a l'ordenació urbanística. En un segon nivell d'escala, s'ha analitzat el rol de cadascuna de les variables urbanístiques amb incidència en el balanç econòmic d'explotació dels serveis públics municipals en zones residencials. S'ha trobat que l'edificabilitat, el valor de les propietats i la densitat d'habitatges serien els determinants urbanístics dels ingressos municipals, mentre que l'eficiència lineal, l'eficiència superficial i la densitat ho serien en el cas de les despeses. A partir de les variables anteriors s'han pogut estimar les funcions d'ingrés i de despesa corrent municipal per a zones de nou desenvolupament, així com els llindars urbanístics de la sostenibilitat econòmica dels nous creixements urbanístics. Finalment, s'ha estudiat l'elasticitat del balanç econòmic municipal en els nous sectors urbanitzats enfront de l'existència de parcel·les sense edificar, habitatges buits i segones residències, observant-se que totes les situacions anteriors poden derivar en enormes variacions d'ingressos i despeses sobre els teòrics previstos. / The steady urban growth in cities calls for a continued expansion of municipal services to newly urbanized areas. The cost of infrastructure maintenance and associated urban services is closely related to the distribution of roads and open spaces. Therefore urban form affects the morphology of the physical elements of the service and therefore affects its operating economic balance. Since the structure of the city, and particularly its public spaces, is very rigid over time, it is of great significance to have an adequate knowledge of the relationship linking the urban planning of an area with future income and expenses arising from the management of associated utilities. In order to define and quantify these links between urban planning and local budget, we have selected from all municipal powers only those related to physical territory. Overall it was shown that, on average, 41% of revenues and 28% of the running costs of the municipality are for services closely linked to urban planning. On a secondary level, the role of each of the urban variables has been analyzed along with its impact on the economic balance of the exploitation of municipal utilities in residential areas. It has been found that buildability, property values and housing density are the urban determinants of municipal revenues, whereas the linear efficiency, open space efficiency and housing density are the determinants with respect to costs. From the above variables we have been able to estimate revenue from current expenditures for areas of new development as well as establish the urban thresholds of economic sustainability of new urban growth. Finally, the elasticity of the municipal economic balance in the newly urbanized areas has been studied, given the existence of undeveloped parcels, empty homes and second homes, noting that all the above situations can lead to huge variations of income and expenses expected on the theoretical predictions.

The target of this doctoral thesis proposes is an historic and critic analysis around the systematic urban development tax system, in Spain and with a special care in Catalonia. In this case, since an urban development is beginning and till the fine of it with the Administration works reception and the dissolution of the cooperating urban entity, we start and drive in a taxes road. The beginning of an urban development, independent of the type of urbanistic system, become that land and activities to do, start in parallel a fiscal road. The study, analysis, criticism and growing better proposes of the fiscal obligations is the goal of the present doctoral thesis, however we want to compare the fiscal road in a systematic urbanity development and the same in and a systematic urbanism development. In that case, we can speak around this investigation questions: - Theres a real and different tax model for the systematic urban developments different than a normal or usual urban development? - lf it truly exists, is adequate with de obligations imposed by rules or urbanism laws to the owners of the affected lands? In any case, we can talk about an initial situation done by laws, norms, and rules that conforms the Spanish system. The long explanation of this point we have done in the methodology of our research work, in order to answer the investigation questions, that we did like a start to arrive to the conclusions, thatre the target of our investigation job. The investigation work plan is this we explain in the methodology and in the initial hypothesis, and is started by an analysis of the Spanish and Catalonian laws and norms; with this first job we obtain the juridical mark of the portrait. Secondly, we talk around the Supreme Spanish Court and with a special reference to the Catalonian Superior Court, and with that interpretation of the laws and norms, and then we arrive to obtain the jurisprudence for this case. Later we analyze the doctrine interpretation of the legal situation and we obtain and resume that interpretation. However we had a comparative our laws in reference with the norms of our neighbor countries. Finally, we have done our critic position of the Spanish urban laws system, that were our conclusions in the present research work. / La finalitat que la tesi doctoral es proposa, és l'analisi teòric i crític de la fiscalitat que grava el desenvolupament urbanístic sistematic, tant pel que fa a l'estat Espanyol com més concretament a Catalunya. I això, perquè des del moment en que s'inicia un procés de desenvolupament urbanístic en un polígon d'actuació fins a la seva finalització amb la recepció de les obres i l'autorització, si és el cas, per part de l'Administració de la dissolució de l'entitat urbanística col.laboradora, s'inicia i es transita per un seguit d'actuacions legals amb repercussió fiscal. L'inici d'un expedient de gestió urbanística, sigui quin sigui el document o acte administratiu que el provoqui, comporta que els terrenys i les actuacions que s'han de fer, iniciïn també una singladura fiscal. L'estudi, anàlisi, critica i suggeriments de millora del seguit d'bbligacions tributàries i aranzelàries que comporta el desenvolupament d'un polígon d'actuació, serà l'objecte de la tesi doctoral. Tanmateix ens plantegem el fet d'analitzar si aquest iter fiscal "varia pel fet de tractar-se d'una actuació sistemàtica o asistematica. En tot cas, podem parlar de que ens fem la pregunta o les preguntes d'investigació següents: - Existeix en realitat un model fiscal per les actuacions sistemàtiques diferenciat del model fiscal normal o usual en qualsevol actuació de desenvolupament immobiliari? - Si existeix aquest model diferenciat, és adequat a la naturalesa quasi obligatòria del desenvolupament urbanístic als polígons d'actuació urbanística? Per tant, podríem parlar d'una situació inicial que en aquest cas be donada per la normativa vigent. En aquest cas, l'explicació amplia d'aquest punt la fem en la metodologia que s'ha empleat i que es vol utilitzar en tot el desenvolupament de la tesi, per tal d'arribar a les conclusions que com a respostes a les preguntes d'investigació que ens hem platejat. Respecte al pla de treball d'investigació, es el ja indicat a l'apartat d'hipótesi inicial.Tal i com hem dit al seu moment l'inici del treball d' investigació va ser l'anàlisi de la normativa vigent. Per tant, el que s'ha de fer primerament s'ha analitzat les principals normes d'aplicació.Amb aixó, hem tingut una aproximació al cos legal del tema.Seguidament, s'han analitzat les interpretacions que d'aquestes normes fa el Tribunal Suprem com les resolucions dels Tribunals Superiors de Justícia dels diversos territoris amb especial èmfasis a les resolucions del Tribunal Superior de Justícia de Catalunya. Amb això hem obtingut el cos d'ilnterpretació jurisprudencia! del tema. Després hem analitzat la doctrina, posant especial sentit en les posicions més crítiques a la situació actual. Amb això, hem aconseguit una referència de la doctrina aplicable. També s'han analitzat altres sistemes d'actuació urbanística de països especialment del nostre entorn. Amb això, hem aconseguit una referència del Dret comparat. Finalment hem arribat a la nostra postura que en alguns casos coincideix amb la normativa actual o Dret subjectiu i en altres s'apropa més a una posició crítica, tal i com es fa constar a les conclusions de la tesi doctoral.

The current legal framework pertaining to animals does not sufficiently address the welfare of animals. The Animal Protection Act 71 of 1962 does not specifically regulate the welfare of animals contained in research laboratories. Animals utilized for experimental research purposes endure tremendous “unnecessary suffering” due to legislative inaptitude. Experimental animals suffer inherent abuses associated with experimental research because of the methods, procedures and processes relevant to the experiments. The most controversial method of experimental research is vivisection. The method of vivisection is not only invasive but also causes “unnecessary suffering” to animals. The non-inherent abuses animals suffer during confinement in a laboratory solely relates to uncontrolled and unregulated conduct of staff. Continuing the application of the current legislative framework may also be detrimental to the health and well-being of humans. Animals are specifically utilized as objects of science in research laboratories. The data obtained from research experiments conducted on animals are for the benefit of humankind rather than the animals. Scientific research concluded that not only are invasive methods of research conducted on live animals generally regarded as useless but extrapolating data from animals to humans can also be misleading, unnecessary and dangerous. False results and questionable methodologies are some of the other problems that seem to require urgent attention. Ethically, neither human nor animal should be utilized at the expense of the other and therefore it would be reasonable to recommend that legislative reform takes place. The human perception of animals in terms of the relationship we have with them is the reason why legislative inaptitude in terms of animal welfare exists. The current approach followed is the philosophy of Utilitarianism. Utilitarians believe that neither humans nor animals have rights but interests. Utilitarianism focuses on the permissibility of an act (the use of animals) by weighing the benefits of such an act to the costs suffered because of such act. If the benefits outweigh the costs suffered, the act is permissible. The application of Utilitarianism seems to be the crux of our legislative inaptitude. The human perception and view of animals must therefore be re-directed to develop a sufficient legal framework in terms of animal welfare. A solution offered is to apply an alternative interpretation to the concept of “dignity” (capabilities approach) and progressive realisation. In terms of this solution a species capabilities in terms of its value, capabilities and worth are considered. Inherent to its value, capabilities and worth, is its “dignity”. Once the alternative interpretation of “dignity” is acknowledged, the progressive realisation of its interests can be achieved. / Thesis (LLM)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

The current legal framework pertaining to animals does not sufficiently address the welfare of animals. The Animal Protection Act 71 of 1962 does not specifically regulate the welfare of animals contained in research laboratories. Animals utilized for experimental research purposes endure tremendous “unnecessary suffering” due to legislative inaptitude. Experimental animals suffer inherent abuses associated with experimental research because of the methods, procedures and processes relevant to the experiments. The most controversial method of experimental research is vivisection. The method of vivisection is not only invasive but also causes “unnecessary suffering” to animals. The non-inherent abuses animals suffer during confinement in a laboratory solely relates to uncontrolled and unregulated conduct of staff. Continuing the application of the current legislative framework may also be detrimental to the health and well-being of humans. Animals are specifically utilized as objects of science in research laboratories. The data obtained from research experiments conducted on animals are for the benefit of humankind rather than the animals. Scientific research concluded that not only are invasive methods of research conducted on live animals generally regarded as useless but extrapolating data from animals to humans can also be misleading, unnecessary and dangerous. False results and questionable methodologies are some of the other problems that seem to require urgent attention. Ethically, neither human nor animal should be utilized at the expense of the other and therefore it would be reasonable to recommend that legislative reform takes place. The human perception of animals in terms of the relationship we have with them is the reason why legislative inaptitude in terms of animal welfare exists. The current approach followed is the philosophy of Utilitarianism. Utilitarians believe that neither humans nor animals have rights but interests. Utilitarianism focuses on the permissibility of an act (the use of animals) by weighing the benefits of such an act to the costs suffered because of such act. If the benefits outweigh the costs suffered, the act is permissible. The application of Utilitarianism seems to be the crux of our legislative inaptitude. The human perception and view of animals must therefore be re-directed to develop a sufficient legal framework in terms of animal welfare. A solution offered is to apply an alternative interpretation to the concept of “dignity” (capabilities approach) and progressive realisation. In terms of this solution a species capabilities in terms of its value, capabilities and worth are considered. Inherent to its value, capabilities and worth, is its “dignity”. Once the alternative interpretation of “dignity” is acknowledged, the progressive realisation of its interests can be achieved. / Thesis (LLM)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013

Hydride generation technique is frequently used for the detection of elements as As, Se, Sb, Sn, Bi, Ge, Te and Pb that form volatile hydrides in solution using a reductant. In this study, a novel quartz trap for on-line preconcentration of volatile analyte species was designed. Pb, Sb and Cd were selected as analyte elements and chemical vapour generation technique was employed for generation of their volatile species in flow systems. The trapping medium was formed by external heating of either the inlet arm of the quartz tube atomizer or a separate cylindirical quartz tube. Generated analyte species were trapped on quartz surface heated to the collection temperature and the collected species were revolatilized when the trap was heated further to releasing temperature and hydrogen gas was introduced in the trapping medium. The conventional quartz T-tube and multiple microflame quartz tube were employed as atomizers. The influence of relevant experimental parameters on the generation, collection and revolatilization efficiencies was investigated. Optimum conditions, performance characteristics of the trap and analytical figures of merit are presented. Experimental design was used for optimizations in some cases. Standard reference materials were analyzed to assess the accuracy of the proposed method. For a collection period of 1.0 minute for Pb, 2.0 minutes for Sb and 3.0 minutes for Cd, 3&amp / #963 / limit of detections, in pg ml-1, were 19, 3.9 and 1.8, respectively. In cases of Sb and Cd, the limits of detections obtained are the same as the best attained with in-situ trapping in graphite furnaces.

Vapor generation in atomic spectrometry is a well established technique for the determination of elements that can be volatilized by chemical reactions. In-situ trapping in graphite furnaces is nowadays one of the most popular methods to increase the sensitivity. In this study, resistively heated W-coil was used as an online trap for preconcentration and revolatilization of volatile species of Bi, Cd and Pb. The collected analyte species were revolatilized rapidly and sent to a quartz Ttube atomizer for AAS measurement. Although the nature of revolatilized species of Bi and Pb are not clear, they are probably molecular since they can be transported at least 45 cm without any significant decrease in the peak height values. However, cadmium is revolatilized from the trap surface as atoms. The experimental parameters were optimized for the highest vapor generation, trapping and revolatilization efficiencies. The concentration limits of detection calculated by the 3 of blank solution were found to be 0.0027, 0.0040 and 0.015 ng/mL for Bi (18 mL), Cd (4.2 mL) and Pb (2 mL), respectively / enhancement factors in the sensitivity were 130, 31 and 20, respectively. These values are comparable with those obtained by in-situ trapping in graphite furnaces or even ICP-MS found in the literature or better. Sensitivity can be improved further for Bi and Cd using larger sample volumes, but purification of blank is required for Pb. Certified standard reference materials were analyzed for the assessment of accuracy of developed method.

A method for determination of silver has been developed based on chemical vapour generation atomic absorption spectrometry (CVGAAS). Volatile species of silver in acidified medium were generated by the reduction of sodium tetrahydroborate / these species were sent to a flame-heated quartz tube atomizer (QTA) following isolation by using a gas-liquid separator. Flow injection (FI) was used for sample introduction. Optimization of parameters such as / concentrations of acid and NaBH4 concentration, flow rates of solutions and carrier gas were made. The influences of the well-known chemical modifier, Pd, and the effect of diethyldithiocarbomate (DDTC) were also examined. Interference study has been carried out for Ni(II), Co(II), Cu(II), Fe(III), Au(III), As(III), Pb(II), Se(IV) and Sn(II) . A detection limit of 7.5 ng mL-1 (n=11) was obtained with a 0.2 mL sample volume. With the FI-CVGAAS system 5.6 times sensitivity enhancement was achieved over flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS).

This study investigates the validity of the real exchange rate-real interest rate differential (RERI) relationship for a sample of twenty-three developing and developed countries. The results based on the Johansen cointegration analysis suggest the validity of the long-run RERI relationship only for a small number of countries including Canada, Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, Chile, Israel and Norway. Real interest rate differentials are found to be positively associated with real exchange rates in the long-run for every country except Israel. The results of the weak exogeneity tests suggest that real exchange rates are the adjusting variables for Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and Israel. Consistent with an endogenous response of domestic interest rates to a real exchange rate shock policy rule, real interest rate differentials are found to be endogenous for the parameters of the cointegration vector for Canada, Chile and Norway.

The great increase in natural phenomena with high destructive potential, that have materialized in events with social and economic catastrophic consequences for people and governments during the last decades, show the urgent need to investigate the issue of prevention. This thesis aims to analyze and discuss the strategies used in managing risk and provide possible strategies for intervention in the countries affected by natural disasters. The analysis of different study cases allows to evaluate the best and the worst planning practices employed in different times and contexts, the circumstances that let the disaster happened and why a country is considered more or less vulnerable. The review of the study cases includes the analysis of the concepts of emergency architecture, emergency planning and post-disaster reconstruction, with the purpose of understanding the contributions provided by the architecture, the governments, the citizens and the institutions responsible for disaster management in such situations. The study cases that have been selected are representative samples of the different possible scenarios in the world. ltaly, Chile, Japan and the United States have a high exposure to seismic and hydro-meteorological natural phenomena with a high destructive potential. All the four countries have shown that a high level of exposure, combined with accentuated features of social, economic, physical, environmental and political vulnerability, generales an increasing in the incidence of disasters. One of the main reasons at the base of the choice of the study cases is that I have lived in person the experience of the disasters and I took part in the reconstruction practices in some of the countries selected. The purpose of this thesis is to provide some basic tools to reduce risk of natural disasters, by defining a new approach to both disaster management and prevention of emergency, that is formulated in the frame of urban ecology. lt aims to develop a database and a set of indicators of global observation with a level of local detail that are supposed to aid the understanding of the complex manifestations of the risk in different situations. The strategies that should be developed in order to reduce the degree of disaster risk are defined and ordered according to different levels of intervention: planning at geographical, urban and building scale, regulatory and social policies and actions implemented by the governments. Even if great progresses have been made in the field of the natural disasters management, there is an urgent need to approach the topic of the risk from a new point of view. For sure, adopting some new guidelines will not prevent a catastrophic event to occur, but will contribute to promoting a culture of prevention and disaster risk reduction aimed at more sustainable human development. / En esta tesis se pretenden analizar los fenómenos naturales de elevado potencial destructivo, que en las últimas décadas se han materializado con consecuencias catastróficas tanto para la población como para sus gobiernos en el plano social y económico, con el fin de demostrar la atención requerida en materia de prevención. Se ponen en cuestión las estrategias utilizadas en el manejo de riesgos y se plantean posibles intervenciones en los diferentes lugares del mundo afectados por una catástrofe. A partir del análisis de diversos casos de estudio, se evalúan las prácticas de planificación más o menos acertadas que han sido aplicadas en diferentes décadas y en contextos distintos, las circunstancias que han avalado los diferentes niveles de catástrofe y las causas que hacen que un país tenga un grado mayor o menor de vulnerabilidad a estos fenómenos. A continuación, se analiza el concepto de arquitectura de emergencia, de planificación de emergencia y de reconstrucción post-catástrofe, intentando comprender cuál es la aportación que la arquitectura, los gobiernos, los ciudadanos y las entidades encargadas de gestionar la catástrofe proporcionan ante dichas situaciones. Los países objeto de estudio son una muestra representativa de los escenarios que se presentan en el mundo. Italia, Chile, Japón y Estados Unidos tienen una elevada exposición a fenómenos naturales sísmicos e hidrometeorológicos con alto potencial destructivo. Este nivel de exposición, combinado con unas características de vulnerabilidad social, económica, física, ambiental y político-institucional acentuadas, hace que estos países padezcan una incidencia de catástrofes alta y creciente. Otro elemento determinante en la selección de algunos de estos países se debe a haber experimentado el desastre en primera persona y haber participado, en algunos de ellos, en las prácticas de la reconstrucción. El objetivo de la tesis es proporcionar unas herramientas básicas para reducir el riesgo, aportando una nueva visión tanto a la gestión de catástrofes como a la prevención de la emergencia, encuadrada en el marco de la ecología urbana. Así mismo, se pretende elaborar una base de datos e indicadores que tengan un nivel de observación mundial y, al mismo tiempo, un grado de detalle local, los cuales ayudarán a conocer las complejas manifestaciones de los riesgos en los distintos escenarios. Las estrategias a seguir para la reducción de los riesgos de desastre se articulan tanto a nivel de acciones del Estado, como a nivel geográfico y urbano, constructivo, normativo y social. Si bien se ha avanzado bastante, todavía queda mucho por hacer y la necesidad de abordar los riesgos desde una perspectiva nueva, no tradicional, es evidente e inmediata. Adoptar estos directrices no evitará la producción de un evento catastrófico, pero ayudará a promover una cultura de prevención y reducción del riesgo de desastres encuadrada en el marco de un desarrollo humano sostenible. La investigación futura debería dirigirse hacia una planificación más cuidadosa y coherente que contribuya a mitigar las consecuencias de los posibles desastres futuros, salve mas vidas y reduzca el impacto en la comunidad, con el fin de minimizar la condición dramática y traumática / Questa tesi si propone di analizzare i fenomeni naturali con alto potenziale distruttivo, che negli ultimi decenni si sono concretizzati in eventi con conseguenze catastrofiche tanto per le persone come per i governi, in termini sociali ed economici, al fine di dimostrare l’attenzione che richiede il tema della prevenzione. Vengono criticate le strategie utilizzate nella gestione del rischio e si pianificano potenziali interventi in diverse parti del mondo colpite da calamità. Dall'analisi dei differenti casi studio, si valutano le migliori e peggiori pratiche di pianificazione applicate in decenni diversi e in differenti contesti, le circostanze che hanno permesso che si producesse il disastro e perché un paese può essere considerato più o meno vulnerabile. In seguito, si analizza il concetto di architettura di emergenza, pianificazione d’emergenza e ricostruzione post-catastrofe , cercando di capire qual è il contributo che l'architettura, i governi, i cittadini e le istituzioni responsabili della gestione dei disastri propongono in queste situazioni. I paesi oggetto di studio sono un campione rappresentativo degli scenari che si presentano nel mondo. Italia, Cile, Giappone e Stati Uniti hanno una elevata esposizione a fenomeni naturali sismici e idrometeorologici ad alto potenziale distruttivo. Questo livello di esposizione, in combinazione con alcune caratteristiche di vulnerabilità sociale, economica, fisica, ambientale, politica e istituzionale accentuata rende questi paesi più propensi a soffrire di un’alta e crescente incidenza di disastri. Un altro fattore determinante nella scelta di questi paesi è stato il fatto di aver vissuto in prima persona la catastrofe e aver partecipato, in alcuni di essi, nelle pratiche di ricostruzione. L'obiettivo della tesi è quello di fornire alcuni strumenti di base per ridurre il rischio, apportando una nuova visione sia per la gestione delle catastrofi che per la prevenzione dell’emergenza, inquadrata nel contesto dell’ecologia urbana. Lo scopo è quello di sviluppare una banca dati e indicatori che abbiano un livello di osservazione mondiale e allo stesso tempo, un livello di dettaglio locale che contribuirà a soddisfare le complesse manifestazioni di rischio in scenari differenti. Le strategie da seguire per ridurre il rischio di catastrofi si articolano tanto a livello di azioni statali, quanto a livello geografico e urbano, costruttivo, normativo e sociale. Anche se sono stati compiuti progressi, resta ancora molto da fare e la necessità di affrontare i rischi da una nuova prospettiva, non classica, è evidente e immediata. L'adozione di queste linee guida non impedirà il verificarsi di un evento catastrofico, ma contribuirà a promuovere una cultura della prevenzione e di riduzione dei rischi inquadrato nel contesto di uno sviluppo umano sostenibile. La ricerca futura dovrebbe essere orientata verso una pianificazione più attenta e coerente che contribuisca a mitigare le conseguenze di eventuali futuri disastri, a salvare più vite e a ridurre l'impatto sulla comunità, con l’obiettivo di minimizzare la condizione drammatica e traumatica.