This doctoral research presents the first sustained archaeological investigation of Kirfi, Bauchi state, northern Nigeria. As part of this work, test pits were excavated at three sites and research was carried out into modern craft practices. These yielded good chronological sequence and allowed the development of a pioneering pottery typology. One central question explored is to what degree the Hausa world just to the north-west of the study area impacted on Kirfi in the past 1000 years. It is argued that theories of technological styles and society can be usefully deployed to understand cultural developments and territorial expansion in African societies. Ideas about economic systems, settlement and social factors resulting in population movements and the definition of cultural identities are key to exploring the complex cultural make- up of the last millennium. I also show that oral tradition is valuable to studies of later African societies when carefully critiqued, in view of the dearth of early written and historical scripts. This thesis will also show how external influences were to alter a native system by the integration of Islam into the socio-political development of Kirfi, including it in a world system that shaped the evolution of the Bauchi region, which then became a principal actor in the spread of a political system in the early part of the 19th century after the jihad of Shehu Uthman Fodio. The influence of Islam (as opposed to formerly practiced ritual systems), long distance trading systems and the role of slaves as a commodity, ‘Hausaness’, craft and economic specialisations are all put forward as factors that played out in the settlements under study here. This finally transformed ancient socio-political systems leading to the ways of life of today. It is hoped that the present research, through its collaborative use of archaeological methods and ethnoarchaeological study, will help improve our understanding of an area that has up to now been a virtual terra incognita and make a wider contribution to African archaeology by interpreting the impact of ‘Hausaisation’ on the southern Bauchi area.

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Strontium isotopes are one of the most effective means to characterise mobility in past societies. However the technique proceeds on the basis that Sr recovered from archaeological calcified tissues is biogenic in origin and has not been contaminated by exogenous Sr. Whilst archaeological bone has been shown to be susceptible to uptake of diagenetic Sr, enamel appears to be resistant to alteration. However tooth enamel is the same mineral as bone and is in contact with the same burial environment so why should it be completely immune to diagenesis? This thesis attempts to investigate Sr uptake in archaeological enamel. From an assessment of the literature and trace element uptake models it is clear that uptake of diagenetic Sr into teeth will cause mixing of diagenetic and biogenic Sr in enamel. Thus detection of diagenetic Sr in teeth requires accurate and precise measurements of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr with high spatial resolution. LA-MC-ICP-MS is ideally suited to this but its application to bioapatites is challenging due to isobaric interferences. Here a method is presented which uses a customised plasma interface to reduce the effect of isobaric interferences and enable accurate and precise determinations of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr by LA-MC-ICP-MS. Diagenetic uptake of Sr into archaeological enamel should also cause mixing of biogenic and diagenetic Sr in stable isotope space. Thus if Sr isotopes could be shown to undergo mass dependent fractionation with trophic level this could be used to detect diagenetic Sr. Here stable Sr fractionation is demonstrated between the feed and dental tissues of a cohort of pigs raised on controlled diets. The results show a 0.3 %0 shift in δ⁸⁸Sr with trophic level. The rate and likely mechanism for Sr uptake in bone is assessed by measuring Sr concentration profiles in a suite of archaeological bones by LA-ICP-MS. The results show that the most likely mechanism for Sr uptake is by diffusion with adsorption. Bone is expected to reach equilibrium with the burial environment between 2,200 and 4,000 years, however the biogenic Sr isotope ratio is likely to be compromised long before equilibrium is reached. Strontium concentration, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and δ⁸⁸Sr profiles are measured in a series of archaeological teeth to assess diagenetic uptake of Sr. Diagenetic uptake of Sr in archaeological enamel is detected with all three of these techniques. Uptake in enamel is consistent with a model of diffusion with adsorption and enamel is likely to reach equilibrium with the burial environment in 67,000 ± 26,000 years. However the biogenic Sr isotope signal will be compromised on significantly shorter time scales. Comparisons of measured uptake profiles with uptake models allows for current enamel decontamination procedures to be assessed. For Holocene age teeth, current decontamination methods are likely sufficient to remove diagenetically altered enamel. For older teeth, whilst decontamination procedures will remove some diagenetic Sr and LA-MC-ICP-MS methods may help to resolve mixing of diagenetic and biogenic Sr for some teeth it will only be possible to return an approximation of the biogenic Sr isotope ratio.

Through the adoption of a modern conflict archaeology framework this work represents the first interdisciplinary study of the subterranean landscapes of the Western Front. Research areas were confined to places where the geology allowed for work underground to be carried out, but the findings of this thesis are representative of the Western Front as a whole. Relatively little information has been published on the underground conflict during the First World War, and what there is tends to focus on the military history of events, places and the units involved. The work presented here interrogated the human experience of life in these subterranean places, combining an assessment of the soldiers' corporeal engagement with these complex modern conflict landscapes, and the material culture they contain. Implicit in this approach is an understanding of the Western Front, and particularly its subterranean elements, as being a deeply sensorial palimpsest. By assessing the underground world of the Western Front in this manner this thesis aims to contribute new and valuable data to the archaeological and anthropological record of the conflict in Northern Europe. Extensive archaeological and anthropological research was conducted in many different subterranean environments in Northern France with an emphasiS placed on the sensorial nature of these under-researched places. Despite archaeology and anthropology being of prime importance, the study of military history, war art, tourism studies and literature all contributed to my theoretical framework. Modern conflict archaeology inherently recognises the complexities and ambiguities of modern warfare, and appreciates the potential of many disciplines to contribute to a holistic study of these powerful physical and metaphysical places while prejudicing none. As this research is so far unique, it involved varied theoretical approaches and the development of new archaeological methodologies. The fieldwork dimension was only possible with the help of an experienced team, as the subterranean landscapes of the Western Front are too dangerous to investigate alone. Implicitly recognised here is the knowledge that modern conflict landscapes are dynamic and heavily contested places; stilllethal palimpsests that represent diverse social and cultural attitudes. The research for this thesis therefore required a particular sensitivity, as well as a close relationship with locals, landowners, politicians and many different nationalities.

The present thesis intends to offer a methodological approach to the application of Geographic Information Systems in Archaeology. The aim is to focus this application on single site excavations and provide a fully integrated system which is capable of storing and processing the archaeological data from the beginning of the excavation to its final publication. A comprehensive review of the history and development of the main GIS applications in archaeology is provided in chapter I. Chapter II is a concise presentation of the site of Kissonerga, Cyprus where the system was implemented. Chapter III includes an overview of the concepts around which the system was built as well as the system's levels of operations. Chapter IV discusses the construction of the database structure which stores and manipulates the primary archaeological data. Chapter V provides the methodology for the capture of the site plans in digital form. The methods for analyzing the archaeological information with the aid of a GIS are presented in chapter VI. The main effort has been placed in linking the GIS with the database for the efficient exchange of information in an integrating fashion. The ultimate aim of each excavation project is to publish the results of its activities. Therefore, chapter VII discusses a number of ways in which computer systems can assist the task. Finally, chapter VIII offers a critical appraisal of the system as well as some suggestions for its improvement in the future.

The Bronze Age site of Phylakopi on Melos has been excavated several times, and produced a number of "potters' marks", small symbols incised or impressed into the clay before firing. The overall development of the site and island throughout the Bronze Age is described. Then the pottery sequence is discussed. The potters' marks are subjected to computer analysis to point up any patterns of use in terms of fabric, vessel type, location of mark, type of mark, provenance of the piece, date and find spot. This process is carried out first on the material from the most recent Phylakopi excavations (1974-77), which was the most meticulously recorded, then on the material from the earlier projects (1896-99 and 1911). The same analysis is applied to comparative material from other Bronze Age sites elsewhere in the Cyclades, Crete and the Greek Mainland. Potters' marks from other areas, periods and cultures are examined to demonstrate some of the known uses of this technique. Finally the Aegean results are compared and contrasted, to extract as much information as possible about the uses and purposes of potters' marks and what they may tell us about the ceramic industry in the Bronze Age Aegean as a whole and more specifically at Phylakopi.

This thesis presents a case for the close involvement of landscape architects routinely in the conservation and presentation of archaeological sites in Britain. It is developed in five chapters. Chapter 1 defines the terms of study, and in particular, what is meant by <I>archaeological resources</I>, by <I>archaeological resource management</I>, and by <I>landscape</I>: it introduces the professions of archaeology and landscape architecture; it outlines the legislative framework relevant to archaeological conservation and preservation in Britain; and it concludes by describing the process of the study and its selection of the work of Colvin and Moggridge landscape architects as a main focus. The body of the thesis is a detailed archival study of three projects by Colvin and Moggridge, each involving the large scale in situ conservation and presentation of archaeological resources within a landscape. The projects are the White Horse of Uffington, the Brenig Reservoir, and Knole Park. Each of these is presented separately and consecutively in Chapters 2, 3 and 4. The concluding chapter reviews the success of the landscape architects in achieving solutions of best balance, and for discussion purposes a comparison is made of past and proposed solutions for the management of the celebrated site of Stonehenge. The thesis concludes by supporting its opening contention that landscape architects are capable of making a valuable contribution to archaeological resource management.

This thesis explores various aspects of the archaeological evidence found on the island of Korčula, Croatia, and its nearby islets. The specific geographic nature of the island allows for a defined and critical analysis of past occupations. While the overall temporal occupations on Korčula fall within known regional sequences, the nature of many aspects of the island's archaeological records seems to be unique. These features permit investigations into the nature of settlement patterns and resource exploitations along the Dalmatian Coast. In this regard, Korčula is an ideal case study for regional socio-cultural and economic organization. The research focuses on the prehistoric and protohistoric periods. The prehistoric period ranges from the Mesolithic through to the Iron Age. The protohistoric period is generally assigned to the Iron Age Illyrian occupations, which are primarily associated with Late Archaic Greek evidence. The data for the thesis has been gathered and examined through numerous methods. A bibliographic review establishes the background to the island as well as the Dalmatian Coast region. The primary archaeological field sampling techniques applied include systematic landscape survey, test excavations, and artifact surface collections. A comprehensive computer data base was designed along with a museum documentation system and a bilingual sites and monuments registry. Numerous specialized examinations (pedological profiles, X-ray fluorescence and X-ray diffraction of clay source materials and pottery) have also been conducted to gain further insight into the nature of the archaeological record, with an emphasis on the potential for future research applications.