The present thesis intends to offer an archaeological approach to the study of sociopolitical complexity in ancient societies through the cross-cultural examination of mortuary variability. The aim is to monitor different trajectories of complexity in the archaeological records of three societies in the East Mediterranean, the southern Levant, Cyprus, and Crete during the Early Bronze Age. Chapter 1 comprises a literature review of the major anthropological and archaeological perspectives on the evolution of complex societies. Chapter 2 includes a brief review on the applications of the cross-cultural method in archaeology and anthropology, and a discussion on the wider implications of the approach for archaeological research. Chapter 3 comprises a literature review on mortuary analysis and social inference in both ethnographically and archaeologically documented societies, and an outline of the methodology developed for the present research. In Chapters 4, 5 and 6, the results of the analysis of the tombs groups are presented in conjunction with a wider discussion on the evolution of complexity in each area.

Archaeological formation processes involve the interactions whereby intrusive human induced evidence reaches a state of balance with its environment. Archaeological material in seawater is subject to a particularly complex set of formation influences because of the range of physical, chemical and biological factors concerned. Controlled experiments were conducted in the laboratory and on three submerged sites in British waters over 52 weeks to determine which chemical and biological processes were responsible for the deterioration of a range of modern organic materials and metals. Understanding the effects these processes had on the materials would enable better interpretation of the submerged archaeological record. In addition, by understanding the environmental factors which affected the deterioration of the materials, it would be possible to suggest methods to mitigate there effects and facilitate better in situ stabilisation and preservation of submerged sites. The results showed that the two categories of material were deteriorated by quite different processes. Essentially the organic materials were subject to biodeterioration through successive colonisation by micro and macro organisms and algae. The most important environmental parameters governing biodeterioration being seasonality and the presence of oxygen in seawater. The metals mainly underwent electrochemical corrosion, although there was evidence of corrosion induced by micro and macro organisms. The environmental parameters affecting corrosion were mainly the salinity of the seawater. To mitigate the effects of these environmental parameters it is suggested that organic materials be re-buried and the redox potential and biochemical oxygen demand of the interstitial water of the re-buried sediment be monitored. It is suggested that in order to preserve metal artefacts in situ the corrosion potential of the surface of corroding metal artefacts should be measured and sacrificial anodes attached.

This study explores the significance of Portable Antiquities Scheme data (PAS) for Lincolnshire, and in doing so makes a distinct and original contribution to the interpretation of plough-zone palimpsests and persistent places. PAS holds information on around 52,000 finds from Lincolnshire alone, but these had yet to be characterised and explored in a systematic way. Moreover, few studies of PAS data in general have explored how such finds come together to form palimpsests, and how these palimpsests in turn can be used to infer persistence of place. The present study addresses these shortcomings. A bespoke methodology is developed that allows PAS data to be analysed at different scales of time and place. This brings into focus different sources of bias and different interpretative possibilities. PAS data are demonstrated to consistently enhance Historic Environment Record data, most notably for the Early Medieval period, where the number of 'activity areas' is increased by 64%. Taking the longer-term view reveals that 93% of PAS data form multi-period assemblages, referred to here as ‘plough-zone palimpsests’. Analysis of these palimpsests shows the majority conform to Bailey's cumulative or spatial palimpsest types, depending on the scale of analysis used (Bailey 2007). They are, however, temporally chaotic, with various chronological combinations reflecting both the repeated use of particular places, but also a range of depositional and post-depositional factors. A series of case studies explore plough-zone palimpsests on smaller scales of time and place. These demonstrate how portable antiquities are important biographical components of ‘persistent places’, which have the potential to reveal structuring within the landscape over long-periods of time. Combined with other evidence engrained within the landscape, PAS data help to explain how the antecedent landscape influenced the subsequent use of places, and how the aftershocks of human activity resonate in the landscape today.

Floodplain environments and sediments are frequently associated with human activity. The interpretation of these associations is highly dependant upon alluvial chronology. The absolute dating of recent alluvial sediment therefore has considerable archaeological value and advances our understanding of the relationships between human activities and the landscape. The main aim of this thesis is to explore the potential of archaeomagnetism to date such fine-grained alluvial sediments in a number of different contexts including both 'natural,' (e.g. overbank, levee, channel and fluvial/estuarine) and artificial depositional environments (e.g. fishponds, a millpond and a cistern or well). One of the advantages of archaeomagnetism is that it is the date of deposition, or shortly afterwards that can be determined. The study has confirmed that waterlain sediments can often exhibit a natural remanence magnetisation. Three Italian sediments yielded good remanence data, however, because of the incomplete nature of the Italian archaeomagnetic curve the assignment of dates was tentative but encouraging for the future. Only two of the British sites, Hemington Fields and Dane valley were successfully dated using archaeomagnetism and the reasons for this are discussed. Many sediments do not appear to carry a natural remanence magnetisation because of depositional and post-depositional processes and so a second aim of this thesis is to explore and broaden our understanding of such processes through the analysis of sedimentary fabric. The remaining non-datable British sites were devoid of a remanence due to the affects of a variety of post-depositional processes. The sediment from the Marta and Fiora also revealed that sediment with an initial high magnetic content and that had experienced small scale physical post-depositional disturbance (rather than physico-chemical) can retain a natural remanence magnetisation. The complex nature of fine-grained sediment deposition and post-depositional processes is examined. A third aim of the thesis was to recommend relatively simple procedures for the in-field assessment of sediments with a high probability of being datable using archaeomagnetism. The procedures have been developed from the study of sedimentary characteristics associated with the environments used in this study.

The Plain of Jars is a series of archaeological sites located in the Xieng Khouang and Luang Prabang Provinces of north Laos, populated with megaliths attributed to the late Iron Age of Southeast Asia. The thesis combines the historical study of this area in relation to the colonial institutions in Laos from 1893 to the early 1940s, with my new mapping of the jar sites based on extensive original documentation. The historical focus is the French archaeologist Madeleine Colani (1866-1943), author of a two-volume monograph on the Plain of Jars (Mégalithes du Haut-Laos, 1935). The events leading up to the first archaeological mission to the Plain of Jars in May 1931, led by Colani under the auspices of the École Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO), are analysed. Also addressed is academic interaction between Dutch researchers in Indonesia and their French counterparts in Indochina and how these exchanges led to the first Far-Eastern Prehistory Congress held in Hanoi in January 1932. Under-researched or undocumented aspects of jar form are discussed, together with a sequence of carving steps based on my observations at quarries and jar sites. An expanded site distribution is analysed in relation to sources of stone and historical routes. The thesis re-contextualizes Colani's work in her time and with new survey and production matter, redefines jar design and iconography, the spatial distribution of sites and their close relationship to the places and processes of manufacture. Regional comparisons are explored and discussed in relation to megaliths and material culture from archaeological sites in Mainland and Island Southeast Asia, and South Asia.

The Neolithic in the Near East witnessed increased duration of settlements and the emergence of food production. Research has in recent decades become increasingly focused on the social mechanisms that underpinned these developments. There has been considerable debate about the extent to which Neolithic built environments reflect new forms of social relationships, household composition and interaction, and the degree to which these may be linked to new economic practices. Most discussions have, however, focused on the Levantine record as it presents a more comprehensive data set. Despite the increase in fieldwork taking place in the Zagros and adjacent lowlands since the late 1990s, there are still temporal gaps in our understanding of the transition from mobile hunter-gatherer groups to more sedentary communities in this area. Additionally, discussions have tended to focus on the reconstruction of economic strategies, and especially the question of caprine domestication, with little consideration of the social transformations that took place in this area. The main aim of this thesis is therefore to begin to redress this situation by providing a contextualised examination of social practices within Neolithic communities in the central and northern parts of the Zagros Mountains and adjacent lowlands. The methodology employed in this thesis utilises a computer-based modelling approach that allows us to visualise architectural remains as lived-in spaces by considering how people lived within and utilised the built environment. Various scenarios were modelled to assess the physical affordance of space for human occupancy, different scales of social interactions and activities associated with daily life, human-animal interaction, and potential storage capacities. This facilitated an examination of how the structuring and use of space may reflect the social practices that existed within individual communities. The modelling has indicated that there was considerable variability in the structuring and use of space within the built environments considered in this thesis, which indicates differing social practices within these communities. Especially interesting is the differences in the spatial configurations between the roughly contemporary level D at Ganj Dareh in the Zagros uplands and the later occupational phases at Nemrik in the lowlands of northern Iraq, which suggests that there were significant differences in the spatial patterning of activities and social practices at these two sites. The modelling has also shown that instead of the increased compartmentalisation purportedly associated with increased household autonomy there appears to be a decrease in internal sub-division throughout the Neolithic in the Zagros. This is accompanied by an increase in the spatial separation of co-resident units and an increased affordance of space for animals within the built environment. The modelling also indicates that there was no substantial increase in storage capacities as all structures examined had the capacity to facilitate storage of enough food and fodder to support the co-resident unit and a small herd of goats.

The skeletal biology of two Late Medieval Scottish populations recovered in the course of the rescue urban excavation of the Carmelite Friaries of Aberdeen and Perth is described. The problems of extracting the maximum information from fragmentary and conmingled remains are discussed. At least ninety three individuals were represented in the Aberdeen series. Of these, thirty nine were immature and fifty four adult. In the Perth series, at least twenty four individuals were represented, two immature and twenty two adult. The skeletal remains represented members of the general population. The material was not markedly different from contemporary European populations in physical size and body build. The incidence of non-metric data was also comparable to other historic groups. It is suggested that the incidence of dental caries was slightly lower than other contemporary British populations. There was some evidence of tuberculosis. Degenerative joint disease was marked in the vertebral column and it was associated with a high incidence of Schmorl's nodes. These pathological conditions are suggestive of a strenuous lifestyle. High levels of childhood morbidity, based on an analysis of transverse lines of increased density, were observed. To date, this is the only detailed descriptive analysis of two Scottish medieval populations. It is hoped that this will form the basis for continuing studies on the temporal and regional variation in Scotland.

Social and economic ties between England and Portugal stretch back to the 12th century. Focusing on the 16th and 17th centuries, this thesis traces relationships between the two countries for a period which has received little scholarly attention from historians, adding material culture as a new source of evidence to describe historic Anglo-Luso interactions. Plymouth, UK, holds the largest collection of Portuguese ceramics recovered archaeologically in Britain. These provide a nuanced insight on the breadth of England’s consumption of Portuguese goods during the 16th and 17th centuries. English acquisition of Portuguese products is a difficult activity to track in the available documents, as many of these objects flowed into English markets and households unrecorded. Routes and reasons for the trade of these ceramics to Plymouth are discussed with the aim of situating the port within the complex networks of the early modern Atlantic World. The general factors influencing the English acquisition of Portuguese ceramics are also explored. Building upon the ceramic case-study at Plymouth, a broader discussion is presented, engaging with Portugal’s material and socioeconomic influence on early modern Atlantic networks with a particular focus on the period of Iberian Crown Union. Beyond the discussion of English-Portuguese interaction, this thesis also provides practical information for the future identification of Portuguese earthenwares recovered archaeologically in the UK. This information includes a form typology and production zone provenance criteria. Finally, the research presented here provides an excellent case-study for the integration of text and material evidence in the study of early modern transnational and transcultural interaction.

This thesis presents an interpretive study into the development, distribution, use and deposition of Iron Age and Roman-era terrets, or rein-guides, from western and central Britain. It is the first in-depth study of terrets as an artefact class and, unlike previous catalogues of Iron Age or “Celtic” metalwork, includes terrets of Continental or Roman stylistic origin as well as the “D-shaped” British series. The accompanying database records 596 terrets from within the study area. The “D-shaped” series first emerged around the third century BC, and appears to have taken a stylistic leap in the early first century AD, when terret design became increasingly varied and frequently involved the inclusion of colourful enamels. From the mid-first century AD, Continental-influenced forms became widespread in Britain. The D-shaped series continued to evolve, whilst adhering to basic conventions and constraints, until chariotry fell into decline around the end of the first century AD. The thesis re-assesses dating evidence for the development of the artefact class, and proposes a new typology organised into three main typo-chronological groups. The inter-relation of D-shaped and Continental varieties is investigated, the distribution across the study area of different forms compared, and depositional contexts reviewed. The social significances of D-shaped terrets in particular are also considered, as communicated both through their artistic development and through the behaviours evident in their deposition. Moving from the Late Iron Age into the Early Roman era, the thesis makes use of object theory and post-colonial theory to interpret the changing social roles of terrets in the context of Roman invasion and occupation.

Biogeochemical research has over the past four-and-a-half decades improved our understanding of human interaction with past environments. The application of different isotope systems has allowed archaeologists to interpret ancient diet, migration and pollution. Although well established in archaeology, biogeochemical interpretations are burdened with questions not only as to the methodology employed but also whether the data presents a consistent picture of past human activity. The use of biographically identifiable individuals offers a means by which the isotope systems may be tested against extent documentary evidence. A sample of forty-five individuals, almost half of which were named individuals, were obtained from the sites of Holy Trinity (Coventry) and St. Luke's (Old Street, Chelsea) and the stable isotopes of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, strontium and lead analysed. The biographies ofthe named individuals were reconstructed through analysis ofextant historical documentation and' used to provide a framework of interpretation for the biogeochemical teclmiques applied. Comparisons are made between the two sites in relation to the biogeochemical techniques employed, biographical reconstruction and osteoarchaeological evidence for disease, migration and diet to address methodological issues and broader questions on 'i,ndustrialisation' during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The osteoarchaeological evidence suggests separation of the two groups into discrete' populations, one that is characterised by occupationally-derived osteoarthropathies (Coventry), and the second, Chelsea, which has an absence of these pathologies. This supports the historical character of the t\VO cities: Coventry as an industrial city in contrast to Chelsea, a 'village of palaces' or pleasure resort. Biogeochemically, carbon and nitrogen isotopes revealed a picture of status-based access to protein resources in a diet that is particularly dominated by freshwater fish, terrestrial omnivores such as pig, or a combination of the two. There is, however, little evidence for a difference in access to such resources between the sexes. Likewise, strontium and oxygen isotopes are capable of differentiating between the two populations and therefore in identifying local and migrant individuals, though limitations in the sample prevent the full utilisation of this data. In one case (Milborough Maxwell) the isotopic techniques \vere able to reveal trans-Atlantic migration between England and the Caribbean. Analysis of lead isotopes of the two populations indicates that while there is little to differentiate the two sites, heavy metal exposure is greater for the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries than for previous periods.