The research herein presents an analysis of the evolution of José Martí’s racial thought throughout his written work. The principle focus of this investigation is to establish a comprehensive understanding of Martí’s racial ideas and to explain how the author developed the anti-racist principles demonstrated in his final years of life. The thesis proposes that José Martí’s ideas regarding race relations were shaped through a gradual process defined by his experiences of exile. To illustrate this position, I present a chronological mapping of his political and racial ideas, ranging from his early writings as a youth (1869), when he established his anti-colonial position against Spain, stretching forward through the end of his life, when Martí’s staunch position against racism was most visible in the context of his writings (1892-1895) in preparation for the war of Cuban independence. This research also reflects on how the Cuban author’s use of race and racism functioned as a principle node to address and promote change concerning political and social contradictions then present in Cuba, Hispanic America and the United States. To understand the process of the construction of José Martí’s racial position, texts he published during his stay in countries with a large indigenous presence, such as Mexico and Guatemala (1875-1878), are analysed. Additionally, the articles, essays and chronicles written by the author on the subject of race during his fifteen-year stay in the United States (1880-1895) are examined, as racial conflict was a prominent issue in political and national debates of the time. The thesis also focuses on the period of organisation and political activism when Martí presented his model for Cuba as a patria libre, defined by the heightened participation of Blacks and mullatos. My examination also focuses on Martí’s 1891 proposal to adopt mestizaje as a regional identity, taking into account the ideological environment of the late eighteen hundreds, which was dominated by Positivism and Liberalism in Hispanic American governments and by economic expansionism in the United States. This study thus provides an approach to understanding the development of José Martí’s racial thinking over the course of his lifetime, demonstrating how his racial ideas were defined and influenced by national and regional contexts, as well as by dominant ideologies, and proposes that Martí’s views regarding race came about as a result of the author’s intellectual and experiential progression, as opposed to being the result of a lifelong anti-colonial stance.

À l'instar des héros de l'indépendance Simón Bolívar et José Martí pendant le premier XIXe siècle, Ernesto Guevara marqua profondément l'histoire de l'Amérique latine pendant le second XXe siècle. Il eut aussi un impact politique, idéologique, culturel et moral dans le monde entier. Aujourd'hui, on retrouve encore son portrait en tête des manifestations ainsi que sur des produits dérivés. Quelles sont donc les origines de ces postérités multiples d'Ernesto « Che » Guevara ? Cette recherche se propose d'étudier ses représentations, sa médiatisation et ses influences en France de 1957 à 1974, aussi bien dans la presse que chez les intellectuels ou dans les milieux d'extrême gauche. En exposant les différents regards français sur Ernesto Guevara et le guévarisme des éditeurs de ses textes et écrits, de ses premiers biographes, des journalistes et éditorialistes, des universitaires et intellectuels, des témoins et révolutionnaires, on peut mieux évaluer son impact de son vivant et les premières années après sa mort, de « Mai 68 » à la baisse des idéaux révolutionnaires et internationalistes au début des années 1970 / Like the heroes of independence Simón Bolívar and José Martí during the first part of the 19th century, Ernesto Guevara left his mark on the second part of the 20th century. He also had a political, ideological, cultural and moral impact all around the world. Nowadays, we still find his portrait in the lead of the demonstrations and on the derivatives. What are the origins of Ernesto « Che » Guevara numerous posterities? This research offers to study his representations, his exposure and his influences in France from 1957 to 1974 in the press as well as among the intellectuals or the extreme left circles. In presenting the different French points of view of his texts and writings editors, of his first biographers, of the journalists and columnists, of the academics and intellectuals, of the witnesses and revolutionaries on Ernesto Guevara and on the Guevarism, we can better assess his impact during his lifetime and the first days after his death, from « Mai 1968 » to the decrease of the revolutionary and internationalist ideas in the early 70’s

Cette thèse analyse le rôle ambivalent de l'exil politique cubain dans le processus de séparation de Cuba et l'Espagne au XIXe siècle, à l'époque où se définit un mouvement anticolonial dans l'île. S'il est indéniable que le héros national cubain, José Marti, a passé plus de temps en exil qu'à l'intérieur de Cuba, ce travail s'écarte de l'idée d'une « fabrique de la nation» hors-sol que l'omniprésence de cette figure a pu suggérer. Des années 1830 à la fin de la guerre des Dix Ans, quitter Cuba n'est pas toujours synonyme d'aspirations indépendantistes. Loin de prétendre au portrait de groupe exhaustif, cette étude insiste sur la grande diversité d'un personnel unifié par l'histoire-patrie insulaire, et sur les dissonances que l'exil introduit dans le récit patriotique cubain. Cette analyse sociopolitique d'un personnel à première vue secondaire pour le récit national cubain aborde trois points principaux. Premièrement, l'étude de l'exil pousse à repenser les jalons chronologiques du nationalisme cubain, et ceux: de la relation impériale entre île et péninsule. Cet objet transversal fait émerger une nouvelle temporalité du lien colonial. Plutôt que de considérer Cuba comme « attendant sa libération » dès le temps des indépendances ibéro-américaines, un « temps du compromis » se dessine, qui dure pendant tout le long XIXe siècle cubain et hispano-cubain. Deuxièmement, la nouvelle géographie impériale dessinée par la carte de l'exil séparatiste pendant la période étudiée donne à voir de nouveaux problèmes politiques pour un empire espagnol amputé de ses anciennes possessions américaines et cherchant à se renouveler. Enfin, s'il est certain qu'il a existé une synergie indépendantiste dans les années 1870 chez les créoles cubains séparatistes de l'intérieur et de l'extérieur, cette thèse montre que ceux qui s'autodéfinissent comme « exilés cubains » compliquent par leur grande diversité les aspirations nationales définies par la République en Armes de Guaimaro en avril 1869. / This dissertation analyses the ambivalent role of political exile from Cuba at the moment of its separation from Spain in the 19thcentury, a period during which the anticolonial movement on and off the island solidified. Although Jose Marti, the Cuban national hero who spent most of his time outside of Cuba in exile, is ubiquitous in the narrative of Cuban independence, I argue that the figure of exil.es is far from simple. This work contends that from the 1830s to the end of the War of Ten Years, leaving Cuba was not necessarily indicative of supporting independence. It tracks these exiles in ail their diversity, and traces the kinds of dissonance that exile might introduce into the patriotic Cuban narrative. Using Cuba as a case study, this thesis maps a new field of knowledge of the Euro-American XIXth century, often defined as the "century of exiles". I approach this analysis of a group, considered secondary until now, through a sociopolitical lens, and make three main contributions. First, a study of political exile challenges the usual chronology of Cuban nationalism, as well as the relationship between the island and the peninsula relationship's timeline. Second, the framework of exile points to a new imperial geography. Separatism abroad reveals the Spanish empire's navel political challenges once a significant part of it had been lost. The number of exiles and banishments it imposed was not a sign of decline, as is most often interpreted. Rather it shows how the empire was seeking renewal, trying to reinvent itself starting in the late 1830s. The empire used exiles to design new colonial policies at home and abroad, and made use of diplomacy to keep a close eye on separatists in exile. While the historiography of this period claims that there was a uniformity of political vision among Cuban creoles, this work claims that those who called themselves "Cuban exiles" were too politically diverse to be considered mere supporters of a monolithic independence.