Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 2005. / Vita. Bibliography: 106-116.

Orientador: Celso Eduardo Benedetti / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T01:56:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza_TiagoAntoniode_M.pdf: 8040684 bytes, checksum: 0b9836df8d96343f09503df5056436cd (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: O cancro cítrico, causado pela bactéria Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), é uma doença que afeta a maioria das espécies do gênero Citrus, ocorrendo praticamente em todos os continentes, e se destaca como uma das ameaças à citricultura brasileira. O mecanismo molecular pelo qual Xac causa o cancro não é inteiramente conhecido, entretanto, sabe-se que a bactéria ao infectar a planta, utiliza o sistema secretório tipo ??? (TTSS) para injetar proteínas de patogenicidade, entre elas PthAs da família AvrBs3/PthA. Quando expresso na célula hospedeira, PthA induz lesões características do cancro como hipertrofia e hiperplasia. Estudos recentes demonstram que membros dessa família atuam como fatores de transcrição. Portanto, a elucidação de como PthA ativa a transcrição é de grande importância para o entendimento do seu mecanismo de ação e desenvolvimento das lesões do cancro. Neste contexto, o presente projeto teve como objetivo caracterizar interações entre a proteína PthA de Xac e as proteínas CsARF (Auxin Response Factor) e CsHMG (High-mobility group) de laranja doce (Citrus sinensis), previamente identificadas em ensaios de duplo híbrido de leveduras. CsARF tem elevada similaridade com AtARF2, um repressor transcricional envolvido na via de sinalização por auxinas. Hormônios vegetais desempenham um importante papel na interação planta-patógeno e em nosso laboratório verificamos que auxinas são importantes para o desenvolvimento dos sintomas do cancro. CsARF foi capaz de interagir com a maioria das variantes de PthA tanto in vitro quanto em ensaios de duplo-híbrido de leveduras. A interação de CsARF com PthA se dá através dos domínios C-terminal Aux/IAA e B3 de ligação ao DNA. Verificamos que o promotor do gene de uma expansina de citros, induzido por Xac e auxina, apresenta possíveis sítios de ligação das proteínas CsARF e PthA. Dados de EMSA indicam que PthA e CsARF ligam em sítios adjacentes no promotor da expansina de citros e que a interação de PthA com CsARF poderia deslocá-la do promotor. A proteína CsHMG é semelhante a AtHMGB1 de Arabidopsis thaliana, envolvida em crescimento celular. CsHMG interagiu com todas as variantes de PthA, sendo que essa interação envolve uma região rica em leucinas (LRR), idêntica nas quatro variantes de PthA. Verificou-se também que CsHMG é capaz de ligar DNA de forma inespecífica. Por outro lado, CsHMG ligou RNA in vitro, com especificidade para RNAs ricos em uridina (poly-U). Como PthA age como fator de transcrição eucarioto, não é surpreendente que proteínas do hospedeiro envolvidas com regulação gênica sejam capazes de interagir com esse efetor, sugerindo um novo modo de ação de proteínas efetoras bacterianas. / Abstract: Citrus canker disease, caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri (Xac), affects almost all citrus species and represents a major threat to the Brazilian citriculture. The molecular mechanism by which Xac causes citrus canker disease is poorly understood, however the bacterium injects pathogenicity proteins through a type III secretion system (TTSS) including proteins of AvrBs3/PthA family proteins. When transiently expressed in host cells, PthAs alter transcription of the host cell to the benefit of the pathogen, leading to the development of the cancer lesions, including hypertrophy and hyperplasia. These proteins are thought to acts as eukaryotic transcriptional factors, binding and activating directly promoters of host genes. Therefore, elucidating how activates PthA transcription is very important to understanding the mechanisms governing the development of canker lesions. To elucidate how PthA activates transcription and to establish its molecular mode of action, a two-hybrid approach was used to identify host proteins that interact with PthA and therefore could be important for the development of the canker lesions. Among the citrus proteins identified, we selected for studies a CsARF (Auxin Response Factor) and a CsHMG (High-mobility group), both involved in regulation of gene transcription. CsARF shares high similarity to the Arabidopsis thaliana ARF2, involved in the auxin signaling pathway. This is in line with our previous studies showing that auxin is required for canker development. The interactions between all variants of PthA were analyzed both in vivoand in vitro and depend on the repeat domain of PthAs. The B3 DNA binding and the Aux/IAA domains of CsARF are both involved in protein-protein interactions. Interestingly, the citrus promoter of a citrus expansin gene that is up-regulated by Xac and auxin contains putative CsARF and PthA binding sites. Since these sites are located adjacent in this promoter, it is suggested that the interaction of PthA with CsARF might somehow affect the regulation of the expansin promoter. CsHMG is highly similar to the A. thaliana HMGB1 involved in cell growth. CsHMG interacts with all PthA variants and its interaction was shown to be mediated primarly by the leucine-rich repeat (LRR) region of PthAs. CsHMG binds to DNA in a non-specific fashion; surprisingly, however, CsHMG shows an as yet unreported ability to bind to synthetic RNA forms with an apparent specificity to poly-U probes. PthA acts like an eukaryotic transcription factor and is not surprising that host proteins involved with gene regulation can interact with this effector, suggesting a new mode of action of these bacterial effector proteins. / Mestrado / Genetica Vegetal e Melhoramento / Mestre em Genética e Biologia Molecular

La capacité des cellules à être invasives et métastasiques est une caractéristique fondamentale de la malignité tumorale. Nous avons récemment montré que le facteur d’ADP-ribosylation 1 (ARF1) est surexprimé dans les lignées cellulaires hautement invasives du cancer du sein et que la stimulation du récepteur au facteur de croissance épidermique (EGFR) peut activer cette isoforme pour contrôler la migration ainsi que la prolifération. Cependant, le rôle de cette GTPase dans la régulation du processus d’invasion cellulaire et les mécanismes moléculaires associés demeure inconnu. Nous avions comme objectifs dans cette thèse, de définir les voies de signalisation sous le contrôle d’ARF1 dans les cellules de cancer du sein et démontrer que l’expression et l’activation de cette GTPase est associée à un phénotype hautement invasif. Nos études démontrent que la modulation de l'expression et l'activité d’ARF1 affecte la capacité des cellules MDA-MB-231 (pour M. D. Anderson-metastatic breast-231), une ligne hautement invasive, à dégrader la matrice extracellulaire via l'activité de la métalloprotéinase MMP-9. ARF1 contrôle les deux principales structures impliquées dans l'invasion, en jouant sur la maturation d’invadopodes ainsi que la relâche de microvésicules membranaires. D’un point de vue mécanistique, l'axe de signalisation ARF1, RhoA-RhoC et la chaine légère de la myosine (MLC) explique ces phénomènes. De plus, nous démontrons que l'un des mécanismes par lequel ARF1 régule la migration est en contrôlant l'assemblage des points adhésions focaux et ce, dans plusieurs types de cellules cancéreuses du sein. ARF1, en étant un membre du complexe d’adhésion, réglemente le recrutement et l’activité de protéines clés à la β1-intégrine tels que la paxilline, la talin et la kinase d’adhésion focale (FAK). Pour finir, nous rapportons que ARF1 et ARF6 ont un rôle majeur dans la transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse. ARF1 est retrouvé fortement exprimé dans les tissus de sous-types les plus agressifs et les plus avancés de cancer du sein. Dans un modèle murin, la modulation à la baisse de l’expression d’ARF1 dans les cellules MDA-MB-231 corrèle avec la diminution de croissance des tumeurs primaires et l’installation des métastases pulmonaires. De plus, nous rapportons que la surexpression des ARF dans des cellules non invasives, les MCF7 (pour Michigan Cancer Foundation-7), permet la nidification de métastases. En effet, dans les MCF7, ARF1 contrôle l’adhésion intercellulaire via la β-caténine et l’E-cadhérine, promeut l’activation de l’oncogène Ras (pour Rat Sarcoma/ Rat Fibrosarcoma virus) et l’expression de plusieurs inducteurs de transition épithélio-mésenchymateuse comme snail et slug. De plus, ARF1 contrôle l’invasion, la prolifération cellulaire et même la résistance à certains agents chimio-thérapeutiques. Globalement, nos études identifient ARF1 comme un interrupteur moléculaire de la progression tumorale et suggèrent que la limitation de son expression/activité pourrait améliorer le devenir des patients atteints du cancer du sein. / Invasive and metastatic chapacities are fundamental features for tumor malignancy. We have recently shown that the ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) is over-expressed in highly invasive breast cancer cell lines and stimulation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) may activate this isoform to regulate migration and proliferation. However, the role of this GTPase in regulating cell invasion process and related molecular mechanisms remain unknown. In this thesis, we had as objectives, to define the signaling pathways under the control ARF1 in breast cancer cells and show that the expression and activation of the GTPase is associated with highly invasive phenotype. Our studies show that the modulation of the expression and activity of ARF1 affect the ability of MDA-MB-231 cells (M. D. Anderson-metastatic breast-231), a highly invasive line, to degrade the extracellular matrix via the activity of the metalloproteinase MMP-9. ARF1 controls the two main structures involved in the invasion, playing on invadopodia maturation and shedding of membrane microvesicles. The molecular mechanisms involve the regulation of RhoA and RhoC activity by ARF1 and the following downtream events associated with and the myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ARF1 also regulates migration by controlling the assembly of focal adhesion complexes in many types of breast cancer cells. ARF1, also prensent in adhesion complexes, regulates the recruitment and activity of key proteins such as paxillin, talin and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) to β1 integrin. Finally, we report that ARF1 and ARF6 play a major role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). ARF1 is found highly expressed in tumor tissue of the most aggressive and advanced subtypes of breast cancer. Lowered expression of ARF1 in vivo in the MDA-MB-231 cells impars tumor growth in primary tumors and inhibits lung metastasis. We report that upregulation of the ARF in non-invasive cells, MCF7 (Michigan Cancer Foundation-7) induce metastasis nidification. Indeed, we show in MCF7 that ARF1 controls intercellular adhesion via the β-catenin and E-cadherin, promotes Ras (Rat Sarcoma/ Rat Fibrosarcoma virus) oncogene activation, and conrols expression of several epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers such as snail and slug. Moreover, we demonstrate that ARF1 controls invasion, proliferation and even resistance to certain chemo-therapeutic agents, in MCF7 cells. Overall, our studies identify ARF1, as a molecular switch of tumor progression and suggest that limiting its expression / activity could improve the outcome of breast cancer patients.

Dans un contexte où la forte prévalence du cancer du sein chez les femmes demeure depuis plusieurs années un enjeu de société majeur, les nouvelles stratégies visant à réduire la mortalité associée à cette maladie sont le sujet de nombreuses recherches scientifiques. Les facteurs d’ADP-ribosylation sont des petites protéines G monomériques importantes pour la réorganisation du cytosquelette d’actine, le remodelage des lipides membranaires et la formation de vésicules. Notre laboratoire a précédemment montré qu’ARF1 est surexprimée dans les cellules hautement invasives du cancer du sein et contribue à leur phénotype migratoire accru. Dans le cadre de ce mémoire, nous avons défini le rôle de cette GTPase dans la migration de telles lignées cellulaires. Pour ce faire, nous avons étudié le rôle d’ARF1 dans l’activation de Rac1, un membre de la famille des GTPases Rho connu pour son implication dans la formation de lamellipodes ainsi que dans la migration cellulaire. Globalement, nous avons déterminé que l’activation d’ARF1 permet l’activation subséquente de Rac1 ainsi que de la voie de signalisation nécessaire au processus de migration. Par une approche d’interférence à l’ARN dans les cellules MDA-MB-231, nous avons d’abord montré la contribution essentielle de Rac1 la migration dépendante d’ARF1. Puis, de façon à établir le mécanisme derrière cette régulation, nous avons montré que l’inhibition de l’expression endogène d’ARF1 altère l’activation de Rac1 dépendante de l’EGF. Nous avons ensuite examiné les conséquences d’une telle inhibition sur les partenaires d’interaction de Rac1. Nous avons découvert qu’ARF1 et Rac1 forment un complexe constitutif, puis qu’ARF1est nécessaire à l’association de Rac1 à IRSp53, une protéine importante dans la formation de lamellipodes. La translocation dépendante de l’EGF du complexe Rac1/IRSp53 à la membrane plasmique est également sous le contrôle d’ARF1. En conclusion, cette étude fournit un nouveau mécanisme par lequel ARF1 régule la migration cellulaire et identifie cette GTPase en tant que cible pharmacologique prometteuse pour freiner le développement des métastases chez les patients atteints du cancer du sein. / ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) are monomeric G proteins important for actin cytoskeleton reorganization, lipid membrane remodeling, and vesicule formation. Our laboratory has previously shown that ARF1 is overexpressed in highly invasive breast cancer cells and contribute to their enhanced proliferation and migration phenotype. In this study, we propose to define the role of ARF1 on the activation of Rac1, an important member of the Rho family of GTPases implicated in the formation of lamellipodia and in the migration process. Globally, we evaluated whether ARF1 activation could affect Rac1 activation and the signaling pathway necessary for cell migration. Using an RNAi approach in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, we first determined the essential contribution of Rac1 in ARF1-dependant migration. Mechanistically, endogenous inhibition of ARF1 expression altered EGF-dependent Rac1 activation. We next investigated the consequences of such effect on Rac1 interaction partners. We showed that ARF1 and Rac1 are constitutively complexed but that ARF1 is necessary for EGF-dependent Rac1 association with IRSp53, an essential protein for lamellipodia formation. When unable to interact, Rac1/IRSp53 complex translocation to plasma membrane was considerably inhibited. In conclusion, this study provides a new mechanism by which ARF1 regulates cell migration and identifies this GTPase as a promising pharmacological target to reduce metastasis formation in breast cancer patients.

Les petites protéines G Arf ont besoin d'un facteur d'échange nucléotidique (GEF) afin de passer de leur forme inactive liée au GDP à leur forme active liée au GTP. GBF1 est la GEF pour Arf1 qui assure, notamment, le recrutement du complexe manteau COPI impliqué dans le transport entre le Golgi précoce et le réticulum endoplasmique. Il a été récemment montré que GBF1 est impliqué dans la livraison de l'Adipose TriGlycéride Lipase (ATGL) sur les corps lipidiques (LDs). ATGL est une enzyme qui catalyse l'hydrolyse des triglycérides en diglycérides. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont eu pour objectif d'étudier et de caractériser l'interaction entre GBF1 et la lipase ATGL. Par des expériences de co-immunoprécipitation dans les cellules de mammifère, les domaines des deux protéines impliquées dans l'interaction ont été identifiés. Par des expériences de pulldown utilisant les protéines exprimées chez E. coli, j'ai montré que ces interactions sont directes. Afin d'approfondir l'étude de l'interaction entre GBF1 et ATGL, j'ai construit des outils permettant l'étude biochimique de GBF1 en purifiant plusieurs de ses domaines. J'ai tout d'abord cherché à mettre au point un test d'activité pour GBF1 afin de tester l'influence de protéines partenaires, dont ATGL, sur son activité. Malgré la purification de différents fragments de GBF1 contenant le domaine Sec7, aucun n'a présenté une activité avec Arf1Δ17 en solution. Le domaine N-terminal de la protéine, avec et sans une mutation empêchant une interaction intramoléculaire, ainsi que les domaines HDS1 et HDS2 de GBF1 ont également été purifiés / Small G proteins Arf require assistance from a Guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) in order to switch between GDP- and GTP-bound forms. GBF1 is the Arf1 GEF that mediates COPI coat complex recruitment to early secretory pathway membranes. COPI is a protein that coats vesicles transporting proteins from the cis side of the Golgi complex back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. GBF1 was recently shown to mediate delivery of Adipose TriGlyceride Lipase (ATGL) to the surface of lipid droplets (LDs). ATGL is an enzyme catalyzing the initial step in triglyceride hydrolysis in LDs. Thus, the aim of this work was to study interactions between GBF1 and ATGL. By co-immunoprecipitation experiments in mammalian cells, the domains of two proteins involved in the interaction have been identified. By pulldown assays using proteins expressed in bacteria, I showed that these interactions are direct. To further study of the GBF1-ATGL interaction, I developed tools for the biochemical study of GBF1, by purifying several of its domains. I first tried to develop a kinetic essay for GBF1 to test the influence of interacting partners, including ATGL, on its activity. Despite the purification of various GBF1 fragments containing the Sec7 domain, none have activity with Arf1Δ17 in solution. The N-terminal domain of the protein, with and without a mutation disrupting an intramolecular interaction, and the HDS1 and HDS2 domains of GBF1 were also purified.

Dans un contexte où la forte prévalence du cancer du sein chez les femmes demeure depuis plusieurs années un enjeu de société majeur, les nouvelles stratégies visant à réduire la mortalité associée à cette maladie sont le sujet de nombreuses recherches scientifiques. Les facteurs d’ADP-ribosylation sont des petites protéines G monomériques importantes pour la réorganisation du cytosquelette d’actine, le remodelage des lipides membranaires et la formation de vésicules. Notre laboratoire a précédemment montré qu’ARF1 est surexprimée dans les cellules hautement invasives du cancer du sein et contribue à leur phénotype migratoire accru. Dans le cadre de ce mémoire, nous avons défini le rôle de cette GTPase dans la migration de telles lignées cellulaires. Pour ce faire, nous avons étudié le rôle d’ARF1 dans l’activation de Rac1, un membre de la famille des GTPases Rho connu pour son implication dans la formation de lamellipodes ainsi que dans la migration cellulaire. Globalement, nous avons déterminé que l’activation d’ARF1 permet l’activation subséquente de Rac1 ainsi que de la voie de signalisation nécessaire au processus de migration. Par une approche d’interférence à l’ARN dans les cellules MDA-MB-231, nous avons d’abord montré la contribution essentielle de Rac1 la migration dépendante d’ARF1. Puis, de façon à établir le mécanisme derrière cette régulation, nous avons montré que l’inhibition de l’expression endogène d’ARF1 altère l’activation de Rac1 dépendante de l’EGF. Nous avons ensuite examiné les conséquences d’une telle inhibition sur les partenaires d’interaction de Rac1. Nous avons découvert qu’ARF1 et Rac1 forment un complexe constitutif, puis qu’ARF1est nécessaire à l’association de Rac1 à IRSp53, une protéine importante dans la formation de lamellipodes. La translocation dépendante de l’EGF du complexe Rac1/IRSp53 à la membrane plasmique est également sous le contrôle d’ARF1. En conclusion, cette étude fournit un nouveau mécanisme par lequel ARF1 régule la migration cellulaire et identifie cette GTPase en tant que cible pharmacologique prometteuse pour freiner le développement des métastases chez les patients atteints du cancer du sein. / ADP-ribosylation factors (ARFs) are monomeric G proteins important for actin cytoskeleton reorganization, lipid membrane remodeling, and vesicule formation. Our laboratory has previously shown that ARF1 is overexpressed in highly invasive breast cancer cells and contribute to their enhanced proliferation and migration phenotype. In this study, we propose to define the role of ARF1 on the activation of Rac1, an important member of the Rho family of GTPases implicated in the formation of lamellipodia and in the migration process. Globally, we evaluated whether ARF1 activation could affect Rac1 activation and the signaling pathway necessary for cell migration. Using an RNAi approach in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, we first determined the essential contribution of Rac1 in ARF1-dependant migration. Mechanistically, endogenous inhibition of ARF1 expression altered EGF-dependent Rac1 activation. We next investigated the consequences of such effect on Rac1 interaction partners. We showed that ARF1 and Rac1 are constitutively complexed but that ARF1 is necessary for EGF-dependent Rac1 association with IRSp53, an essential protein for lamellipodia formation. When unable to interact, Rac1/IRSp53 complex translocation to plasma membrane was considerably inhibited. In conclusion, this study provides a new mechanism by which ARF1 regulates cell migration and identifies this GTPase as a promising pharmacological target to reduce metastasis formation in breast cancer patients.

Les petites protéines G Arf ont besoin d'un facteur d'échange nucléotidique (GEF) afin de passer de leur forme inactive liée au GDP à leur forme active liée au GTP. GBF1 est la GEF pour Arf1 qui assure, notamment, le recrutement du complexe manteau COPI impliqué dans le transport entre le Golgi précoce et le réticulum endoplasmique. Il a été récemment montré que GBF1 est impliqué dans la livraison de l'Adipose TriGlycéride Lipase (ATGL) sur les corps lipidiques (LDs). ATGL est une enzyme qui catalyse l'hydrolyse des triglycérides en diglycérides. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont eu pour objectif d'étudier et de caractériser l'interaction entre GBF1 et la lipase ATGL. Par des expériences de co-immunoprécipitation dans les cellules de mammifère, les domaines des deux protéines impliquées dans l'interaction ont été identifiés. Par des expériences de pulldown utilisant les protéines exprimées chez E. coli, j'ai montré que ces interactions sont directes. Afin d'approfondir l'étude de l'interaction entre GBF1 et ATGL, j'ai construit des outils permettant l'étude biochimique de GBF1 en purifiant plusieurs de ses domaines. J'ai tout d'abord cherché à mettre au point un test d'activité pour GBF1 afin de tester l'influence de protéines partenaires, dont ATGL, sur son activité. Malgré la purification de différents fragments de GBF1 contenant le domaine Sec7, aucun n'a présenté une activité avec Arf1Δ17 en solution. Le domaine N-terminal de la protéine, avec et sans une mutation empêchant une interaction intramoléculaire, ainsi que les domaines HDS1 et HDS2 de GBF1 ont également été purifiés / Small G proteins Arf require assistance from a Guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) in order to switch between GDP- and GTP-bound forms. GBF1 is the Arf1 GEF that mediates COPI coat complex recruitment to early secretory pathway membranes. COPI is a protein that coats vesicles transporting proteins from the cis side of the Golgi complex back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. GBF1 was recently shown to mediate delivery of Adipose TriGlyceride Lipase (ATGL) to the surface of lipid droplets (LDs). ATGL is an enzyme catalyzing the initial step in triglyceride hydrolysis in LDs. Thus, the aim of this work was to study interactions between GBF1 and ATGL. By co-immunoprecipitation experiments in mammalian cells, the domains of two proteins involved in the interaction have been identified. By pulldown assays using proteins expressed in bacteria, I showed that these interactions are direct. To further study of the GBF1-ATGL interaction, I developed tools for the biochemical study of GBF1, by purifying several of its domains. I first tried to develop a kinetic essay for GBF1 to test the influence of interacting partners, including ATGL, on its activity. Despite the purification of various GBF1 fragments containing the Sec7 domain, none have activity with Arf1Δ17 in solution. The N-terminal domain of the protein, with and without a mutation disrupting an intramolecular interaction, and the HDS1 and HDS2 domains of GBF1 were also purified.

ARF, a potent tumor suppressor, positively regulates p53 by antagonizing MDM2, a negative regulator of p53, which in turn, results in either apoptosis or cell cycle arrest. ARF also suppresses the proliferation of cells lacking p53, and loss of ARF in p53-null mice, compared with ARF-null or p53-null mice, results in a broadened tumor spectrum and decreased tumor latency. This evidence suggests that ARF exerts both p53-dependent and p53-independent tumor suppressor activity. However, the molecular pathway and mechanism of ARF’s p53-independent tumor suppressor activity is not understood. The antiapoptotic, metabolically regulated, transcriptional corepressor C-terminal binding protein 2 (CtBP2) has been identified as a specific target of ARF’s p53-independent tumor suppression. CtBPs are phosphoproteins with PLDLS-binding motif and NADH-binding central dehydrogenase domains. ARF interacts with CtBP1 and CtBP2 both in vitro and in vivo, and induces their proteasome-mediated degradation, resulting in p53-independent apoptosis in colon cancer cells. ARF’s ability to target CtBP2 for degradation, and its induction of p53-independent apoptosis requires an intact interaction with CtBP2, and phosphorylation at S428 of CtBP2. As targets for inhibition by ARF, CtBPs are candidate oncogenes, and their expression is elevated in a majority of human colorectal adenocarcinomas specimens in comparison to normal adjacent tissue. Relevant to its targeting by ARF, there is an inverse correlation between ARF and CtBP expression, and CtBP2 is completely absent in a subset of colorectal adenocarcinomas that retains high levels of ARF protein. CtBPs are activated under conditions of metabolic stress, such as hypoxia, and they repress epithelial and proapoptotic genes. BH3-only genes such as Bik, Bim and Bmf have been identified as mediators of ARF-induced, CtBP2-mediated p53-indpendent apoptosis. CtBP2 repressed BH3-only genes in a tissue specific manner through BKLF (Basic kruppel like factor)-binding elements. ARF regulation of BH3-only genes also required intact interaction with CtBP2. ARF antagonism of CtBP repression of Bik and other BH3-only genes may play a critical role in ARF-induced p53-independent apoptosis, and in turn, tumor suppression. To study the physiologic effect of ARF/CtBP2 interaction at the organismal level, the p19ArfL46D knock-in mice, in which the Arf/CtBP2 interaction was abrogated, was generated. Analysis of the primary cells derived from these mice, revealed that the Arf/CtBP2 interaction contributes to regulation of cell growth and cell migration. Overexpression of CtBP in human tumors, and ARF antagonism of CtBP repression of BH3-only gene expression and CtBP-mediated cell migration may therefore play a critical role in the p53-independent tumor suppressor function/s of ARF.

Vesicle budding, membrane trafficking, and lipid metabolism depend on the switching of Arf and Rab GTPases from the inactive GDP bound state to the active GTP bound state. However, Arf and Rab GTPases have intrinsic rates of GDP to GTP exchange that are much slower (hours to days) than the time scale of the relevant trafficking processes (seconds or less). In cells, the activation of Arf and Rab GTPases is tightly regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) with Sec7 or Vps9 domains, respectively. Full length Cytohesins, which have a domain architecture consisting of heptad repeats, a Sec7 domain, a pleckstrin homology (PH) domain, and a polybasic motif, have 100-fold lower exchange activity than the isolated Sec7 domain. Insights into the low exchange activity were obtained by structural, biochemical and kinetic analyses. It was found that the Sec7-PH domain linker and a C-terminal amphipathic helix physically block the docking sites for the switch regions of Arf GTPases. Mutations within either element result in partial or complete relief of autoinhibition. Autohibition is also strongly relieved by phosphorylation of protein kinase C (PKC) sites in the polybasic motif of Cytohesin-1 or by phosphoinositide head group-dependent binding of active Arf6. Despite unrelated folds, Sec7 and Vps9 domains engage cognate GTPases in a strikingly similar manner and supply a critical acidic residue that interacts with an invariant lysine residues from phosphate binding (P) loop of the GTPase in the nucleotide free complex. The key acidic residues have also been proposed to disrupt the Mg2+ binding site; however, it is not known whether disruption of Mg2+ binding contributes to the rate limiting step for nucleotide release. To investigate the kinetic mechanism for catalysis of nucleotide exchange in the absence of autoinhibitory interactions, a detailed stopped flow kinetic analysis of the intrinsic and GEF mediated exchange reactions was conducted for the isolated catalytic cores. Using three different fluorescence methods to monitor Mg2+ dissociation, formation of the nucleotide free intermediate, and subsequent nucleotide binding, the catalytic cores of Cytohesin-1 and Rabex-5 were found to robustly accelerate nucleotide exchange on Arf1 and Rab5, respectively, by at least 105- fold at physiological concentrations of Mg2+. The acceleration of nucleotide exchange was reduced by roughly an order of magnitude at sub-micromolar concentrations of Mg2+. In addition, the Cytohesin-1 and Rabex-5 catalytic cores have similarly high catalytic efficiencies (kcat/KM) as well as high lower limits on both the rate (kcat) and steady state (KM) constants for GDP release at physiological as well as low Mg2+ concentration. The limits on kcat and KM are comparable to the highest values reported for other well characterized GEFs and likely reflect dual requirements of membrane targeting and autoregulatory mechanisms for tight control of catalytic output. These results provide a solid structural and mechanistic foundation for future experiments to investigate the spatial-temporal dynamics of Cytohesin and Rabex-5 activation in cellular contexts.