Hydroxyurea was used as a model teratogen to investigate the role of oxidative stress and stress-response pathways in mediating developmental toxicity. When administered to pregnant mice during early organogenesis, hydroxyurea induced fetal death and growth retardation, as well as external and skeletal malformations. The malformed fetuses displayed hindlimb, vertebral column, and tail defects. Hydroxyurea treatment enhanced the production of 4-hydroxynonenal, a lipid peroxidation end product, in malformation sensitive regions of the embryo. Depletion of glutathione, a major cellular antioxidant, specifically enhanced hydroxyurea-induced malformations and elevated the region-specific production of 4--hydroxynonenal protein adducts in the embryo, without affecting the incidence or extent of hydroxyurea-induced fetal death or growth retardation. The major proteins modified by 4-hydroxynonenal were involved in energy metabolism. Thus, oxidative stress is important in the induction of malformations by hydroxyurea. / Exposure to hydroxyurea stimulated the DNA binding activity of activator protein 1 (AP-1), an early response redox-sensitive transcription factor. Activated AP-1 was composed mainly of c-Fos heterodimers. Glutathione depletion did not change the effects of hydroxyurea on AP-1/c-Fos DNA binding activities despite an augmentation of the incidence of embryo malformations. Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) activate AP-1 in response to stress by post-transcriptional phosphorylation of AP-1 proteins. Hydroxyurea treatment dramatically enhanced the activation of stress-responsive p38 MAPKs and JNKs (c-Jun N-terminal protein kinases). Selectively blocking p38 MAPKs enhanced the incidence of fetal death, whereas selective inhibition of JNKs specifically elevated the limb defects induced by hydroxyurea. Thus, activation of stress-response pathways impacts on the response of the embryo to a teratogenic insult.

Adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) is an aggressive lymphoproliferative disorder associated with human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection. Reactivation of telomerase, a critical event in tumor progression observed in late phases of ATL development, has been shown to be caused by HBZ (HTLV-1 bZIP factor), a regulatory protein encoded by the negative strand of the HTLV-1 genome. The HBZ-mediated up-regulation of the telomerase catalytic subunit is dependent on JunD, which in the cellular context occurs in the complex with menin, the product of the MEN-1 tumor suppressor gene. Interaction with menin represses JunD-dependent transcription and converts JunD into a growth suppressor, whereas it acts as a growth promoter in the absence of menin. My results demonstrate that the viral protein HBZ abrogates tumor suppressor function of menin, resulting in the activation of JunD transcriptional activity and finally in the up-regulation of its target gene, the human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT). I showed that HBZ, JunD and menin can coexist in the same protein complex and that HBZ and menin exert opposite effects on JunD transcriptional activity. Moreover menin inhibits the JunD-mediated activation of the hTERT proximal promoter and HBZ is able to counteract this effect. Finally, I proposed that HBZ, by recruiting p300 histone acetyltransferase, reverses the histone deacetylation conducted by menin-recruited HDACs and therefore up-regulates the expression of the hTERT gene. Altogether, my work led to the identification of the molecular mechanism leading to the functional impairment of the menin tumor suppressor, which results in the deregulation of AP-1 signaling in HTLV-1 infected cells. Finally this work gave new insights into the mechanism of the transcriptional up-regulation of the hTERT gene upon HTLV-1 infection, being a key event during the development of Adult T-cell leukemia and a necessary step towards the progression into more aggressive courses.

Regulated secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes and other biologically active molecules requires formation of secretory granules. However, the molecular machinery required for secretory granule biogenesis is incompletely understood. I used powerful genetic approaches available in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the factors required for biogenesis of mucin-containing ‘glue granules,’ which form within epithelial cells of the third-instar larval salivary gland. I discovered that clathrin and the clathrin adaptor protein complex (AP-1), as well the enzyme type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII), are indispensable for glue granule biogenesis. Clathrin and AP-1 are necessary for maturation of exocrine, endocrine and neuroendocrine secretory granules in mammalian cells. I found that Drosophila clathrin and AP-1 colocalize at the TGN and that clathrin recruitment requires AP-1. I further showed that clathrin and AP-1 colocalize with secretory cargo at the TGN and on glue granules. Finally, I demonstrated that loss of clathrin or AP-1 leads to a profound block in secretory granule biogenesis. These findings establish a novel role for AP-1/clathrin-dependent trafficking in the formation of mucin-containing secretory granules. Type II phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KII) generates the membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) at the trans-Golgi network and is required to recruit cargo to endosomes in mammalian cells. I generated null mutations in the sole Drosophila PI4KII and demonstrated a role for PI4KII in both glue granule and pigment granule biogenesis. PI4KII mutant salivary gland cells exhibit small glue granules and mislocalize glue protein to abnormally large late endosomes. Additionally, PI4KII mutants exhibit altered distribution of the granule specific SNARE, SNAP-24. These data point to a crucial role for PI4KII in sorting of regulated secretory products during granule biogenesis. Together, my results indicate that the larval salivary gland is a valuable system for investigating molecular mechanisms involved in secretory granule biogenesis, and provide a framework for future studies using this system.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karolinska institutet, 2005. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Ο ακριβής ρόλος των μεταγραφικών παραγόντων AP-1, NF-κB και PPARγ στην καρκινογένεση του παχέος εντέρου δεν είναι πλήρως εξακριβωμένος. Είναι γνωστό ότι ο υποκινητής του γονιδίου cox-2 περιλαμβάνει περιοχές πρόσδεσης των μεταγραφικών παραγόντων AP-1 και NF-κB. ΣΚΟΠΟΣ Με σκοπό την διερεύνηση του ρόλου των AP-1, NF-κB και PPARγ στην καρκινογένεση του παχέος εντέρου, εξετάστηκε η έκφραση των c-FOS, pc-JUN (φωσφορυλιωμένος-ενεργός c-JUN), pIκB-α (φωσφορυλιωμένος IκB-α – δείκτης ενεργοποίησης του μονοπατιού του ΝF-κB), CBP (κοινός μεταγραφικός συνενεργοποιητής των AP-1, NF-κB και PPARγ), EGFR, p53, PPARγ και COX-2, τόσο στον φυσιολογικό εντερικό βλεννογόνο όσο και σε αδενοκαρκινώματα παχέος εντέρου. ΥΛΙΚΟ-ΜΕΘΟΔΟΣ Εφαρμόστηκε ανοσοϊστοχημική μεθοδολογία σε τομές μονιμοποιημένες σε ουδέτερη φορμόλη και εγκλεισμένες σε παραφίνη από 60 ασθενείς με καρκίνο παχέος εντέρου. Για κάθε ασθενή δημιουργήθηκε ένα “μοριακό προφίλ”, τόσο για τα φυσιολογικά επιθηλιακά κύτταρα όσο και για τα καρκινικά. Οι στατιστικές σχέσεις μεταξύ των μεταγραφικών παραγόντων και των γονιδίων-στόχων μελετήθηκαν με την χρήση του Spearman’s rho συντελεστή συσχετίσεως, και έγινε περαιτέρω ανάλυση και επιβεβαίωση των αποτελεσμάτων με την βοήθεια μη-παραμετρικής ανάλυσης Kruskall-Wallis. ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΑ Ο pΙκΒ-α βρέθηκε υπερεκφρασμένος στο 81.7% των αδενοκαρκινωμάτων σε σχέση με το γειτονικό φυσιολογικό επιθήλιο και η έκφρασή του συσχετιζόταν θετικά με την COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.513, P < 0.001). H έκφραση του PPARγ βρέθηκε ελαττωμένη στο 77.3% των αδενοκαρκινωμάτων και παρουσίαζε αρνητική συσχέτιση με την έκφραση της COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = -0.412, P < 0.001) και του pIκB-α (Spearman’s rho = -0.444, P < 0.001). Ο CBP βρέθηκε υπερεκφρασμένος στο 50% των αδενοκαρκινωμάτων σε σχέση με το γειτονικό φυσιολογικό επιθήλιο και η έκφρασή του συσχετιζόταν θετικά με την COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.461, P < 0.001). Οι EGFR και pc-JUN βρέθηκαν υπερεκφρασμένοι στο 41.7% και στο 43.3% των αδενοκαρκινωμάτων, αντίστοιχα, σε σχέση με το γειτονικό φυσιολογικό επιθήλιο και η έκφρασή τους συσχετιζόταν θετικά με την COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.444, P < 0.001 και Spearman’s rho = 0.431, P < 0.001, αντίστοιχα). Επιπλέον, η έκφραση του p53 εμφάνιζε θετική συσχέτιση με την έκφραση της COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.435, P = 0.004). ΣΥΜΠΕΡΑΣΜΑΤΑ Η ανάλυση των παραπάνω αποτελεσμάτων οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι η επαγωγή του μονοπατιού EGFR–MAPK–AP-1 και του μονοπατιού του ΝF-κB, καθώς και η ελάττωση της έκφρασης του PPARγ, είναι σημαντικά γεγονότα κατά την διάρκεια της καρκινογένεσης του παχέος εντέρου. Οι σχέσεις μεταξύ των μεταγραφικών παραγόντων AP-1, NF-κB, PPARγ και της COX-2 οδήγησαν στην δημιουργία ενός μοριακού μοντέλου, το οποίο εξηγεί την υπερέκφραση της COX-2 στα αδενοκαρκινώματα του παχέος εντέρου. Η κλινική σημασία αυτού του μοντέλου για την χημειοπροφύλαξη και την θεραπεία του καρκίνου παχέος εντέρου συζητείται διεξοδικά. / The exact role of AP-1, NF-κB and PPARγ in the development of colon cancer remains to be elucidated. Cox-2 promoter contains transcriptional regulatory elements for various transcription factors including AP-1 and NF-κB. OBJECTIVE The present study evaluated the expression of c-FOS, pc-JUN (phosphorylated-active c-JUN), pIκB-α (phosphorylated IκB-α, a signaling intermediate of the NF-κB pathway), CBP (a known AP-1, NF-κB and PPARγ transcriptional coactivator), EGFR, p53, PPARγ and COX-2 in normal colonic epithelial cells and colon adenocarcinoma cells. METHOD Immunohistochemical methodology was performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections from 60 patients with colon adenocarcinomas. A “molecular profile” was created for each patient both for normal colonic epithelial cells and colon adenocarcinoma cells. Relationships between transcription factors and downstream molecular targets were evaluated by Spearman’s rho correlation coefficient and all results were further validated by nonparametric Kruskall-Wallis test. RESULTS pIκB-α was overexpressed in 81.7% of adenocarcinomas as compared to adjacent normal colon and correlated positively with COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.513, P < 0.001). PPARγ was down-regulated in 77.3% of the adenocarcinomas and correlated inversely with COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = -0.412, P = 0.001) and pIκB-α (Spearman’s rho = -0.444, P < 0.001). CBP was induced in 50% of the cases and its expression correlated positively with COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.461, P < 0.001). Induction of EGFR and pc-JUN was detected in 41.7% and 43.3% of the cases, respectively, and their expression correlated positively with COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.444, P < 0.001 and Spearman’s rho = 0.431, P < 0.001, respectively). Moreover, p53 expression correlated positively with COX-2 (Spearman’s rho = 0.435, P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicate that activation of the EGFR–MAPK–AP-1 and NF-κB pathways as well as down-regulation of PPARγ expression are important events in colon carcinogenesis. The correlations between AP-1, NF-κB, PPARγ and COX-2 lead to the proposal of a dynamic molecular model that explains COX-2 induction in colon adenocarcinomas. The clinical implications of this model in chemoprevention and treatment of colorectal cancer are thoroughly discussed.

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<p>Cell transformation by the Src tyrosine kinase is characterized by extensive changes in gene expression. Previous studies have indicated that many of these changes are dependent on the activity of transcription factors belonging to the AP-1, STAT and Ets families. This study took advantage of transformation-deficient and temperature sensitive mutants of the Rous sarcoma virus to characterize transformation-induced patterns of gene expression of two primary cell types, chicken embryo fibroblasts (CEF) and chicken neuroretina (CNR). In these cells, v-Src alters the expression of up to 6% of the protein coding genes. Comparison of this program with independent breast carcinoma data sets identified a group of 42 v-Src inducible genes associated with reduced disease-free survival. Pathway and ontological analyses of the genes differentially regulated by transformation in CEF and CNR indicated a generalized program of de-differentiation induced by Src.</p> <p>To investigate the role of AP-1 inSrc-mediated transformation, a gene profiling study was conducted to characterize the transcriptomes of v-Src-transformed CEF expressing the <em>Jun</em> dominant-negative allele or the <em>JunD</em> short-hairpin RNA (shRNA). Microarray data analysis indicated a cluster of 18 co-regulated probe-sets activated in v-Src-transformed CEF with repressed AP-1 activity but not activated in normal CEF or CEF transformed only by v-Src. One gene, <em>death-associated protein kinase 1</em> (<em>DAPK1</em>), is a C/EBPβ-regulated mediator of apoptosis in IFN-γ-induced cell death. Inhibition of DAPK1 abrogated cell-death in v-Src-transformed CEF expressing the JunD shRNA and expression of DAPK1 was dependent on C/EBPβ but antagonized by AP-1. Chromatin immunoprecipitation indicated that C/EBPβ, but not JunD, is recruited to the DAPK1 promoter. In conclusion, JunD promotes survival by indirectly antagonizing C/EBPβ-dependent expression of DAPK1.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Activator Protein-1(AP-1) family plays a central role in the transcriptional regulation of many genes that are associated with cell proliferation, migration, metastasis, and survival. Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) is a multi-functional regulatory cytokine that regulates many aspects of cellular function, including cellular proliferation, migration, and survival. This study investigated the role of FOS proteins in TGF-β signaling in prostate cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. DU145 and PC3 prostate cancer cells were exposed to TGF-β1 at varying time and dosage, RT-PCR, western blot and immunofluorescence analyses were used to determine TGF-β1 effect on FOS mRNA and protein expression levels as well as FosB sub-cellular localization. Transient silencing of FOS protein was used to determine their role in cell proliferation, migration and invasion. Our data showed that FOS mRNA and proteins were differentially expressed in human prostate epithelial (RWPE-1) and prostate cancer cell lines (LNCaP, DU145, and PC3). TGF-β1 induced the expression of FosB at both the mRNA and protein levels in DU145 and PC3 cells, whereas cFos and Fra1 were unaffected and Fra2 protein expression increased in PC3 cell only. Immunofluorescence analysis showed an increase in the accumulation of FosB protein in the nucleus of PC3 cells after treatment with exogenous TGF-β1. Selective knockdown of endogenous FosB by specific siRNA did not have any effect on cell proliferation in PC3 and DU145 cells. However, basal and TGF-β1-and EGF- induced cell migration was significantly reduced in DU145 and PC3 cells lacking endogenous FosB. TGF-β1- and EGF-induced cell invasion were also significantly decreased after FosB knockdown in PC3 cells. Transient silencing of Fra2 resulted in decrease in cell proliferation in PC3 cells whereas transient silencing of cFos resulted in an increase in cell number in PC3 cells. And lastly, TGF-β1 reduced FosB: cJun dimerization; cJun knockdown increased cell migration in PC3 cells and its over expression decreased cell migration in DU145 cells. Our data suggest that FosB is required for migration and invasion in prostate cancer cells. We also conclude that TGF-β1 effect on prostate cancer cell migration and invasion may be mediated through the induction of FosB.