published_or_final_version / Educational Psychology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

西方動機研究指出對學習較為理想的動機以自主及內在取向為主。但近年的跨文化動機研究指出，雖然東方社會的學習環境未必對培養內在動機有利，但國際研究 (如：PISA) 指出東方學生的成績較西方學生為佳。 / 本研究邀請249名高中學生於考試前兩周填寫學習動機量度問卷。多層線性回歸分析指出正面的自尊感可預測基於平時分預測以外的中文、英文及數學科考試成績。而中文科及英文科考試成績亦同時受到不同類型的動機概念所影響。 / 本研究亦發現性別與不同程度的自我調控動機的交互影響可影響語文科的考試表現 (中文及英文科)。這些交互影響與考試成績的關係可歸因於女生在學習語文科目時的女性取向及她們在語文科的成績優勢。男生的交互影響則受競爭取向及希望獲取優異考試成績而引致的焦慮所影響，使男生分別在中、英文科成績受到正面(中文)及負面(英文)的影響。 / In Western motivational studies, high achieving and successful students are characterized as autonomous, self-directed, and intrinsically motivated. To optimize learning and academic achievement, Western motivational theories emphasize learning with goals that are aimed at mastering content and developing one's competence. In recent years, many academic achievement studies with international comparisons suggest that East Asian students are often among the top achievers (Hau & Ho, 2010; Li, 2002). In contrast to Western learning environments, the education environment in these East Asian countries, like Hong Kong, Shanghai, Korea is characterized as demanding and exam-oriented. Students' learning is believed to be predominately driven by extrinsic motivation. Such a learning environment is likely to create a less desirable condition for the development of optimal academic motivation in students. Thus, it is surprising to note the latest OECD PISA report (OECD, 2010) showed these Asian countries being ranked highly in academic achievement, occupying the third to fourth rankings among all participating countries. The outstanding achievement of East Asian students has been of great research interest in recent years. Researchers have focused on the cultural factors and socialization processes for explaining the outstanding academic achievement of East Asian students, and have studied how cultural factors and socialization processes contribute to different motivational mechanisms in initiating and sustaining students' academic engagement. / In the present study, a questionnaire which consisted items of self-regulating motivations, goals orientations, contingent self-worth, self-esteem, task value and goal investment were administered to examine how different motivational processes contributed to Hong Kong Chinese high school students' (N=249) academic achievement. Students filled in the questionnaire two weeks before their final examination. Their pre-examination term marks and gender were entered as controlled variables for predicting students’ final examination achievement along with the motivation variables. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that different motivational processes exerted different influences on students' performance in compulsory academic subjects. / Consistent across the three core academic subjects (Chinese, English and Mathematics), the higher one's self-esteem two weeks before their final examination, the greater was his or her achievement on top of what would have been predicted by their term scores. The boosting effect of motivational constructs were also found in the humanities subjects, particularly for English, students with higher performance goal, contingent self-worth, external regulation and lower identified regulation achieved better examination results in respective academic subjects. For Chinese language, higher external regulation predicted better examination achievement. Plausible explanations including cultural influences and relative importance of these subjects in Hong Kong context were discussed. / Findings in the present study also documented interaction effects between gender and self-regulated motivation for humanities examination achievement. Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed that two types of self-regulating motivation interacted with gender on the achievement of different language arts subjects. Findings showed that girls with low introjected regulation achieved much better Chinese examination results than boys did. The interaction effect for the two sexes was relatively smaller for students with higher introjected regulation. / For English language, girls with high identified regulation had better examination results than boys did. The interaction effect for the two sexes was relatively smaller for students with low identified regulation. / The findings confirmed that self-regulating motivation interacted with gender for different academic subjects. In general, language subjects were deemed as feminine orientations, in which girls tend to possess greater internal value towards learning this academic subject, and girls' achievement suffered as heightened introjected regulation externalized self-regulating motivation. Whereas, boys' performance did not suffer as they were more receptive to heightened external regulation and competition. / In the learning of non-native language, achievement in English examination was negatively affected by identified regulation. In a previous study, it was documented that upper-grade students were less motivated in reading than lower-grade students (Lau, 2009a). As there is tremendous pressure for students to master English in Hong Kong, identified regulation may not be a strong propelling force for students' learning two weeks before their final examination. However, the negative effects differed across both genders. As girls enjoy the beneficial effects of feminine orientations and higher language competence, they maintain their identified value for English language and hence relatively similar English achievement levels were observed in girls regardless of the level of identified regulation. Whereas, for boys, the negative impact of identified regulation was more obvious. As boys were found to be more anxious in learning English than their female counterparts in CMI schools (Salili & Lai, 2003), high identified regulation reflected their stronger desire to get good grades or stronger personal importance attached with the subject which in turn heightened their anxiety and adversely affected the boys' achievement. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Wong, Chin-pang. / Thesis (Ed.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 108-119). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese. / Chapter Chapter1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Background of the Study --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Significance of the Study --- p.6 / Chapter Chapter2 --- Review of Literature --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1 --- Approaches of Studying Human Motivation --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Behavioral Approaches --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Cognitive Approaches --- p.11 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Summary --- p.13 / Chapter 2.2 --- Major Motivational Theories and Constructs --- p.14 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Atkinson and Achievement Motivation --- p.14 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Weiner and Attribution Theory --- p.16 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Performance Goals and Mastery Goals --- p.19 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Self-Determination Theory --- p.22 / Chapter 2.2.5 --- Gender Differences in Major Motivation Variables --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2.6 --- Summary --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3 --- Effects of Cultural and Contextual Factors on Different Motivational Constructs --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Goal Theory --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Attribution Theory --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Self-Determination Theory --- p.34 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Summary --- p.38 / Chapter 2.4 --- Achievement Motivation in Chinese Societies --- p.41 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Goal Theory in Chinese Societies --- p.43 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Attribution Theory in Chinese Societies --- p.45 / Chapter 2.4.3 --- Self Determination Theory in Chinese Societies --- p.49 / Chapter 2.4.4 --- Summary --- p.52 / Chapter Chapter3 --- Method --- p.55 / Chapter 3.1 --- Participants --- p.55 / Chapter 3.2 --- Procedure --- p.55 / Chapter 3.3 --- Measure and Instruments --- p.56 / Chapter 3.4 --- Statistical Analysis --- p.61 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Motivational Processes and Academic Achievement --- p.63 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Gender Differences in Academic Motivation --- p.65 / Chapter Chapter4 --- Results --- p.67 / Chapter 4.1 --- Motivational Processes and Academic Achievement --- p.70 / Chapter 4.2 --- Prediction of Final Chinese Examination --- p.74 / Chapter 4.3 --- Prediction of Final English Examination --- p.77 / Chapter Chapter5 --- Discussion --- p.80 / Chapter 5.1 --- Self in Learning among Chinese --- p.80 / Chapter 5.2 --- Task Engagement (Ego Involve and Task-Oriented) of Chinese Students --- p.83 / Chapter 5.3 --- Chinese Self-Regulating Motivation --- p.88 / Chapter 5.4 --- Self-Regulating Motivation and Gender Differences --- p.94 / Chapter 5.5 --- Conclusion and Implication --- p.102 / Chapter 5.6 --- Limitations and Future Studies --- p.105 / References --- p.108

The purpose of this research was to investigate the nature of thinking styles as it relates to style value and style malleability through examining the relationships between thinking styles, motivational orientations, and academic achievement in learning physics among secondary school students in Hong Kong. Specifically, the research aimed to determine whether or not teaching styles change students’ thinking styles, and if so, the association of these changes on students’ motivational orientations; and to determine the extent to which motivational orientations and thinking styles link academic achievement in physics. This quantitative research employed a quasi-experimental longitudinal design and was composed of one pilot study and one main study. The pilot study purposed to evaluate the two inventories used in the main study: the Motivational Orientation Scales in Learning Physics (MOSLP) and the Thinking Styles Inventory Revised II (TSI-R2). A total of 76 secondary school students participated in the pilot study. Results revealed that the MOSLP and the TSI-R2 were applicable to Hong Kong school students. The main study was an experimental study aimed at determining the impact of teaching styles on students’ thinking styles, motivational orientations, and academic achievement in physics. A total of six teachers and 449 secondary students constituted the experimental group, and five teachers and 347 students constituted the control group. The intervention, involved students in physics lessons instructed under Type I teaching styles, was implemented in each participating teacher’s school for one semester. Pre-and post-tests were conducted, in which students’ thinking styles and motivational orientations were measured by the TSI-R2 and the MOSLP respectively. Students’ physics examination results were also collected at the time of the post-test. A series of statistical analyses were conducted to reveal the effects of thinking styles on motivational orientations, to identify changes in students’ thinking styles, and to determine their relationships with academic achievement in both the experimental and control groups. Overall results demonstrated that Type I thinking styles were positively associated with task orientation and negatively connected with work avoidance orientation, thus which indicated adaptive value of Type I styles; Type II styles were not particularly associated with any of the motivational orientation scales, which suggested that they were value-differentiated; and Type III styles were found to be associated with ego orientation (in the pre-test), which suggested that they had less adaptive value. Moreover, students in the experimental group unexpectedly demonstrated a decreasing trend in their use of some Type I styles, some maladaptive Type II styles, and some Type III thinking styles for learning physics, whereas students in the control group decreased their use of some Type III thinking styles. Also, reduction in ego orientation among students in the experimental group was found to be greater than that of the control group. Finally, results demonstrated that teaching styles played a mediating role in boosting academic achievement. Students in the experiment and control groups studying in different forms modified either their thinking styles or motivational orientations. The magnitudes of these changes positively associated with students’ levels of achievement in physics. / published_or_final_version / Education / Doctoral / Doctor of Education

"March 2003." / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2003. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 238-258). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Electronic reproduction. Ann Arbor, MI : ProQuest Information and Learning Company, [200-] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / Abstracts in English and Chinese.

by Hui Hing Fai. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1996. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 70-76). / Table of Contents --- p.1 / List of Figures --- p.3 / List of Tables --- p.4 / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.5 / Purpose of the study --- p.5 / Significance of the study --- p.6 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Implicit Theory of Intelligence and Achievement Goals --- p.8 / Achievement goals --- p.8 / Chapter - --- Learning and performance goals --- p.8 / Chapter - --- Work avoidance goal --- p.10 / Implicit theory of intelligence --- p.13 / Chapter - --- Helpless and mastery-oriented children --- p.14 / Chapter - --- Adoption of different achievement goals --- p.15 / Chapter - --- The effects of implicit theory of intelligence on the achievement goals --- p.17 / Chapter - --- Implicit theory of intelligence in classroom environments --- p.18 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Effects of Achievement Goals on Motivational Behavior --- p.21 / Achievement goals and learning strategies --- p.22 / Chapter - --- Effective learning strategies --- p.22 / Chapter - --- Deep and surface level strategies --- p.24 / Chapter - --- Active and superficial cognitive engagement --- p.26 / "Achievement goals, satisfaction and task choice" --- p.28 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Framework of the Study --- p.31 / Incremental theory of intelligence and achievement goals --- p.31 / Achievement goals and learning strategies --- p.32 / "Achievement goals, boredom and choice of easy task" --- p.34 / Conceptual model --- p.35 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Research Method --- p.37 / Variables --- p.37 / Hypotheses --- p.38 / Samples --- p.40 / Procedures --- p.40 / Instruments --- p.41 / Statistical analyses --- p.43 / Chapter - --- Preliminary analyses --- p.43 / Chapter - --- Correlations --- p.43 / Chapter - --- Structural equation modeling --- p.44 / Chapter - --- Cross-validation --- p.45 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Results --- p.47 / Items analysis and factor structure of instrument --- p.47 / Correlatons among variables --- p.51 / Structural relations --- p.52 / Cross validity --- p.57 / Chapter Chapter 7 --- Discussion --- p.60 / The validity of the work avoidance goal --- p.60 / Relations between incremental theory of intelligence and achievement goals --- p.61 / Relations between achievement goals and motivational behavior --- p.62 / Differences between grade 7 and grade 9 students --- p.64 / Implication of the findings --- p.66 / Limitations of the study --- p.67 / References --- p.70 / Appendix1 --- p.77 / Appendix2 --- p.79

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Education

published_or_final_version / Education / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

這項研究的目的旨在探討香港15歲學生在科學素養上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。 / 本研究的數據取自2006年在本港舉行的香港學生能力國際評估計劃(Programme for International Student Assessment)。該計劃的4645學生樣本取自146所學校，包括：官立、資助及私立學校，以兩階段分層隨機抽樣的方法選取。 / 學生能力國際評估計劃如其他大型國際評估一樣，其評估框架採用多維試題架構。本研究採用配合該試題架構及樣本結構的多維試題功能（MDIF）及多層中介變項（MLM）兩個研究方法，去了解15歲男女學生在科學素養(認知和情感)上的性別差異及這些差異如何影響男女生在選擇以科學作為升學及職業的動機。比較常用的均差t-檢定，MDIF具備提高各次級量尺的精確度特質，因而可以更有效和準確地計算出男女學生在科學素養上的性別差異。MLM則以Eccles (1983) 的成功期望價值理論為學理基礎去分析和了解這些性別差異如何影響男女生在選取與科學相關的升學途徑和擇業的動機。 / 要完成MLM的研究，我們必須先使用單組驗證性因子分析(Single-Group CFA)驗證經濟合作與發展組織(OECD)所建構的六項情意因素，包括：「科學上的自我概念」、「科學的個人價值」、「科學的興趣」、「對科學的喜好」、「學習科學的工具性動機」和「將來工作而學習科學的動機」，以便了解使用這些源自西方社會的情意因素在本土研究的可行性及效度。接着使用本土數據去調整這六項情意因素結構。最後利用多組驗證性因子分析(Multiple-Group CFA)去確定這些因素結構對男女生是否都適用(即測量等同檢驗Measurement Invariance Test)。 / 由單組驗證性因子分析結果得知，六項情意因素，除了要對「科學的興趣」因素作較大幅度的修改外，其他五項因素都具有良好的心理測量特性。而多組驗證性因子分析的結果亦顯示，六項情意因素都能通過測量等同檢驗，亦即這六項因素結構對男女生都適用。 / 研究結果顯示除了「鑑定形成科學議題」能力外，本港15歲的男生在「解釋科學現象」及「科學證」等科學認知層面上優於女生。在科學情意發展上，男生比女生亦有更好的發展，其效應值(effect size)更高於認知層面。 / MLM的研究結果與Eccles的成功期望價值理論預測結果吻合，也就是說，男女生在面向未來升學選科和擇業動機上呈現明顯的性別差異，而這些差異主要是透過情意因素(中介變項)間接影響男女生的選擇意向。就這些因素而言，女生在選取科學作為未來升學途徑和職業動機明顯地較男生為弱。 / 整體而言，驗證性因子分析結果和MLM的研究結果支持源自西方社會的Eccles成功期望價值理論具備跨文化效度，在香港華人社會的研究結果與西方結果基本吻合。 / 最後，本文作者將根據本研究的結果，向科學教育的工作者、教師、父母、課程發展人員、政策的制定者和考核機構提供一些可行的建議，希望藉此改善香港男女生在科學生涯規劃上的性別差異。 / The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of gender differences of 15-year-old students on scientific literacy and their impacts on students' motivation to pursue science education and careers (Future-oriented Science Motivation) in Hong Kong. / The data for this study was collected from the Program for International Student Assessment in Hong Kong (HKPISA). It was carried out in 2006. A total of 4,645 students were randomly selected from 146 secondary schools including government, aided and private schools by two-stage stratified sampling method for the assessment. / HKPISA 2006, like most of other large-scale international assessments, presents its assessment frameworks in multidimensional subscales. To fulfill the requirements of this multidimensional assessment framework, this study deployed new approaches to model and investigate gender differences in cognitive and affective latent traits of scientific literacy by using multidimensional differential item functioning (MDIF) and multilevel mediation (MLM). Compared with mean score difference t-test, MDIF improves the precision of each subscales measure at item level and the gender differences in science performance can be accurately estimated. In the light of Eccles et al (1983) Expectancy-value Model of Achievement-related Choices (Eccles' Model), MLM examines the pattern of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediated through cognitive and affective factors. / As for MLM investigation, Single-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Single-Group CFA) was used to confirm the applicability and validity of six affective factors which was, originally prepared by OECD. These six factors are Science Self-concept, Personal Value of Science, Interest in Science Learning, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Future-oriented Science Motivation. Then, Multiple Group CFA was used to verify measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The results of Single-Group CFA confirmed that five out of the six affective factors except Interest in Science Learning had strong psychometric properties in the context of Hong Kong. Multiple-group CFA results also confirmed measurement invariance of these factors across gender groups. / The findings of this study suggest that 15-year-old school boys consistently outperformed girls in most of the cognitive dimensions except identifying scientific issues. Similarly, boys have higher affective learning outcomes than girls. The effect sizes of gender differences in affective learning outcomes are relatively larger than that of cognitive one. / The MLM study reveals that gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation mediate through affective factors including Science Self-concept, Enjoyment of Science Learning, Interest in Science Learning, Instrumental Motivation to Learn Science and Personal Value of Science. Girls are significantly affected by the negative impacts of these mediating factors and thus Future-oriented Science Motivation. The MLM results were consistent with the predications by Eccles' Model. / Overall, the CFA and MLM results provide strong support for cross-cultural validity of Eccles’ Model. In light of our findings, recommendations to reduce the gender differences in science achievement and Future-oriented Science Motivation are made for science education participants, teachers, parents, curriculum leaders, examination bodies and policy makers. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Wong, Kwan Yin. / Thesis (Ed.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2012. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 158-182). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstract also in Chinese. / ABSTRACT --- p.i / ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS --- p.v / TABLE OF CONTENTS --- p.vi / LIST OF TABLES --- p.xi / LIST OF FIGURES --- p.xiii / ABBREVIATIONS --- p.xiv / Chapter CHAPTER ONE --- INTRODUCTION / Chapter 1.1 --- Background of the study --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Gender-equity in global content of education --- p.2 / Chapter 1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance and affective learning --- p.8 / Chapter 1.1.3 --- Gender differences in variability of science performance --- p.11 / Chapter 1.1.4 --- PISA background --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2 --- Weaknesses of previous gender studies --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Weaknesses of measurement models based on total score --- p.13 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Weaknesses of unidimensional measurement models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Strength of multidimensional IRT models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Strength of multilevel models --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3 --- Research questions --- p.16 / Chapter 1.4 --- Significance of the study --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- For gender-equity educational policies in Hong Kong --- p.17 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- For local economic growth --- p.18 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- For gender-inclusive science curriculums, assessments & teachers' training --- p.19 / Chapter 1.4.4 --- For academic discourse in gender-equity --- p.20 / Chapter 1.5 --- Structure of the thesis --- p.20 / Chapter 1.6 --- Summary --- p.21 / Chapter CHAPTER TWO --- LITERATURE REVIEW / Chapter 2.1 --- Defining scientific literacy by historical review --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Cognitive domain of scientific literacy --- p.22 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Affective domain of scientific literacy --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.1 --- Taxonomy of affective domain elements in science education --- p.30 / Chapter 2.1.2.2 --- Science self-concept --- p.31 / Chapter 2.1.2.3 --- Motivation in science learning --- p.31 / Chapter 2.2 --- Gender differences in scientific literacy --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Defining gender: the nature versus nurture debate --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Gender differences in cognitive learning outcomes --- p.33 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Gender differences in affective learning outcomes --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Gender differences in science educational and occupational choices --- p.40 / Chapter 2.3 --- Factors attributing gender differences --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Biological contributions --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.1 --- Evolutionary psychology perspectives --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3.1.2 --- Brain structural perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.3 --- Brain functional perspectives --- p.45 / Chapter 2.3.1.4 --- Hormonal perspectives --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Sociocultural contributions --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.2.1 --- Gender-role --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.2.2 --- Schooling and family conditions --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Item characteristics attributing to gender differences --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.1 --- Scientific content --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.3.2 --- Item format --- p.49 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Expectancy-value model of achievement-related choices in science --- p.50 / Chapter 2.3.4.1 --- Self-concept of ability as mediator of gendered choices --- p.51 / Chapter 2.3.4.2 --- Subjective task values as mediators of gendered choices --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4 --- Local research on gender differences in scientific literacy . --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Gender differences in science performance --- p.52 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Gender differences in affective domain --- p.56 / Chapter 2.5 --- Summary --- p.57 / Chapter CHAPTER THREE --- RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS / Chapter 3.1 --- PISA 2006 database --- p.58 / Chapter 3.2 --- Conceptual framework of present study --- p.60 / Chapter 3.3 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of scientific literacy --- p.62 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- Cognitive domain --- p.61 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Affective domain --- p.63 / Chapter 3.3.2.1 --- Science Self-concept --- p.65 / Chapter 3.3.2.2 --- Personal Value of Science --- p.67 / Chapter 3.3.2.3 --- Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.68 / Chapter 3.3.2.4 --- Motivation to Learn Science --- p.72 / Chapter 3.4 --- Conceptualization and operationalization of Parental SES --- p.74 / Chapter 3.5 --- Multidimensional Differential Item Functioning (MDIF) --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- The item response (IRT) model --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- DIF model for gender differences studies --- p.77 / Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Effect size by DIF --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.1.3 --- Item fit statistics --- p.79 / Chapter 3.6 --- Model testing in SEM . --- p.80 / Chapter 3.7 --- Summary --- p.80 / Chapter CHAPTER FOUR --- GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STUDENTS’ COGNITIVE & AFFECTIVE LEARNING OUTCOMES / Chapter 4.1 --- Gender differences in students' cognitive outcomes --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions --- p.81 / Chapter 4.1.1.1 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MSD --- p.82 / Chapter 4.1.1.2 --- Gender differences in science performance dimensions measured by MDIF --- p.84 / Chapter 4.1.2 --- Gender differences in content domains --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.1 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MSD --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2.2 --- Gender differences in content domains measured by MDIF --- p.87 / Chapter 4.1.3 --- Gender differences in item formats --- p.89 / Chapter 4.1.4 --- Gender variability in science performance --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.1 --- Gender variability measured by variance ratio (B/G) --- p.90 / Chapter 4.1.4.2 --- Gender variability measured by number of students against each ability estimate --- p.92 / Chapter 4.2 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by MSD --- p.95 / Chapter 4.3 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by MSD . --- p.98 / Chapter 4.4 --- Gender differences in students' affective learning outcomes measured by DIF --- p.99 / Chapter 4.5 --- Gender differences in science achievement related choices measured by DIF --- p.100 / Chapter 4.6 --- Summary --- p.101 / Chapter CHAPTER FIVE --- THE FINDINGS BY EXPECTANCY-VALUE MODEL OF ACHIEVEMENT-RELATED CHOICES / Chapter 5.1 --- Pearson correlations between affective factors and gender --- p.104 / Chapter 5.2 --- Gender differences by revised Expectancy-value Model --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- Grouping homogeneity --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- Mediation effect of Science Performance --- p.106 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- Mediation effect of Science Self-concept --- p.109 / Chapter 5.2.4 --- Mediation effect of Interest in Science Learning --- p.112 / Chapter 5.2.5 --- Mediation effect of Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.113 / Chapter 5.2.6 --- Mediation effect of Interest and Enjoyment of Science Learning --- p.116 / Chapter 5.2.7 --- Mediation effect of Attainment Value --- p.117 / Chapter 5.2.8 --- Mediation effect of Utility Value --- p.119 / Chapter 5.2.9 --- Mediation through Attainment Value and Utility Value --- p.121 / Chapter 5.2.10 --- Full models of gender effects on Future-oriented Science Motivation --- p.122 / Chapter 5.3 --- Summary --- p.126 / Chapter CHAPTER SIX --- CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS / Chapter 6.1 --- Database and data analysis --- p.129 / Chapter 6.2 --- Major findings --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.1 --- Multidimensional DIF model --- p.130 / Chapter 6.2.2 --- Multilevel Mediation using Expectancy-Value Model --- p.134 / Chapter 6.3 --- Revisiting conceptual model --- p.137 / Chapter 6.4 --- Implications for policy and practice --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- Implications for policy makers --- p.139 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- Implications for school administrators, teachers and textbook authors --- p.140 / Chapter 6.4.3 --- Implications for parents and students --- p.140 / Chapter 6.5 --- Limitations and recommendations for future research --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.1 --- Limitations of the study --- p.143 / Chapter 6.5.2 --- Recommendations for future research --- p.144 / Chapter Appendix A --- Handling missing values --- p.146 / Chapter Appendix B --- Booklet effects --- p.149 / Chapter Appendix C --- Wright map for science performance dimensions --- p.151 / Chapter Appendix D --- Gender differences in scientific performance measured by MDIF --- p.152 / References --- p.158