There remains a high degree of scepticism about acupuncture since its theoretical basis has no clear reference in Western medical and scientific terms, making any associations between neurophysiology and specific acupuncture concepts difficult to determine. Using neuroimaging and engineering approaches to understand its physiological basis may engender greater acceptance of and improvement in the clinical application of acupuncture. Research into the efficacy of acupuncture has raised a number of difficult methodological issues, particularly in relation to the selection of appropriate controls. Separating specific effects from non-specific effects is complex because acupuncture is a physical, invasive, manual procedure involving time and ritual. Sham acupuncture results show only the difference between sham and real acupuncture not the real affect of acupuncture, and other controls may produce distinct subjective and objective effects. Point injection (the injection of a small amount of a substance at an acupoint), a recent innovation of traditional acupuncture, aims to enhance and prolong the stimulation effect in a standardised, reproducible manner. By providing precise, measurable acupoint stimulation applied incrementally in a specifically designed paradigm, an acupoint could act as its own control. This firstly requires injection to be validated against traditional needling. Aims 1. To develop an instrument for reproducible saline delivery at an acupoint. 2. To cross-validate saline acupoint injection (PI) with traditional needle acupuncture (TA). 3. To demonstrate central nervous system (CNS) effects of acupuncture both in health and chronic pain. Hypothesis The primary hypothesis is that stimulation of specific acupoints with linearly incremental saline injection produces differential effects within the CNS observable with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allowing investigation of acupuncture in health and chronic pain. Novelty As neuroimaging has not yet clearly defined the brain structures that may be modulated by acupuncture, this project is exploratory in nature. It is expected that acupuncture effects can be robustly imaged with fMRI in healthy subjects and those suffering chronic pain. The demonstrated effects will result from the acupuncture process of progressive point stimulation by tissue distension rather than needle insertion or biological noise. It is proposed to examine the putative modulation of pain by acupuncture within the extensively mapped neuromatrix of cortical and subcortical regions, including the somatic, insula, and limbic cortices, and thalamus. Detailed information regarding differences in brain response between acupuncture in normal and diseased states will expand understanding of acupuncture as a clinical tool. The dilemma of sham stimulation or arbitrary controls will be addressed by confirming PI as a valid, reproducible stimulation method. Methods and Results A series of empirical experiments was designed and conducted to determine the effects of stimulation of different acupoints. 1. Chapters 1 and 3 outline the current understanding of acupuncture in the Western milieu and a review of the neuroimaging literature respectively. 2. In Chapter 2, the report of PI tested against TA in healthy volunteers to determine equivalence of physiological effect demonstrates no statistically significant differences between the methodologies. 3. Chapter 4 reports the design and validation of a task specific microprocessor controlled syringe driver. 4. Four differing acupoints were tested during an fMRI experiment described in Chapter 5; different activation areas were demonstrated across the acupoints providing early support for the hypothesis that different acupoints may have different effects. A subset of brain areas recognised within the pain neuromatrix was delineated, congruent spatially and directionally with those reported in pharmacological analgesia studies. 5. As outlined in Chapter 6, heart rate variability can be measured rapidly in a stressful environment to provide meaningful data on the response of the autonomic nervous system to acupuncture stimulation. 6. The hypothesis of different acupoints having different effects was tested in subjects suffering chronic pain by contrasting an accepted and a neutral acupoint, the results being reported in Chapter 7. Conclusion Despite a long history of clinical usage, appropriate scientific studies have not yet addressed the basic effectiveness and efficacy of acupuncture. This thesis presents a series of empirical studies designed to address a number of the questions arising in the literature and provides converging evidence of the manner in which different acupoints modulate the CNS, specifically within the pain neuromatrix.

Thesis (M.CM)--Hong Kong Baptist University, 2006. / Dissertation submitted to the School of Chinese Medicine. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 61-63).

Thesis (M.CM)--Hong Kong Baptist University, 2006. / Dissertation submitted to the School of Chinese Medicine. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 1-12 (3rd group)).

Thesis (M.CM)--Hong Kong Baptist University, 2006. / Dissertation submitted to the School of Chinese Medicine. Includes bibliographical references.

Tez (Tıpta Uzmanlık) - Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Tıp Fakültesi, Nöroloji Anabilim Dalı, 2004. / Bibliyografya var.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Linköpings universitet, 2004. / Härtill 6 uppsatser.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-13T14:50:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2013-11-20Bitstream added on 2014-08-13T18:00:36Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000757985.pdf: 8633106 bytes, checksum: 56d56656e351ac98948717891006f4dd (MD5) / A cinomose é uma enfermidade infectocontagiosa e multissistêmica de ocorrência mundial com alta morbidade e mortalidade. Quando acomete o sistema neurológico, os animais apresentam sinais clínicos severos que se tornam sequelas, quando recomenda-se comumente a eutanásia pela escassez de métodos de tratamento eficazes. O objetivo deste estudo prospectivo foi avaliar os efeitos da acupuntura no tratamento de sequelas neurológicas em cães, com diagnóstico definitivo de cinomose. Os 24 pacientes selecionados apresentavam RT-PCR positivo para cinomose, sinais neurológicos estáveis e hemograma normal 15 dias antes do início do tratamento com acupuntura associada à eletroacupuntura. Semanalmente realizou-se exame neurológico e graduação do acometimento dos sinais neurológicos de acordo com escala desenvolvida para o estudo. Para análise estatística utilizaram-se os testes de McNemar e Wilcoxon, para comparar respectivamente as proporções e medianas das alterações neurológicas antes e após o tratamento, Fisher, para comparar a porcentagem de animais com acometimento de cada par de nervos cranianos e localização da lesão e as curvas de Kaplan-Meier para avaliar a porcentagem de reversão de cada sinal neurológico ao longo do tratamento. Definiu-se se significância estatística quando P<0.05. Antes do tratamento todos os animais apresentavam alteração de deambulação (de III a V), que retornou a deambulação funcional, escore I ou II, em 79,2% e 8,3% dos animais respectivamente. A mioclonia presente em 50% dos animais, apresentou redução da severidade em todos e cura em 25% dos animais. As alterações encefálicas (18 de 24 animais), de nervos cranianos (18 de 24 animais) e de micção (5 de 24 animais) foram revertidas em todos os animais. Concluiu-se que a acupuntura associada à eletroacupuntura é eficaz no tratamento das sequelas neurológicas da cinomose e atualmente é a melhor opção terapêutica disponível ... / Canine distemper is worldwide infectious and multisystemic disease, with high morbidity and mortality. When the neurological system is affected, the animals usually show severe clinical signs and sequels. As no treatment is available, euthanasia is commonly recommended under these circumstances. This study evaluated the effects of acupuncture in the treatment of neurological sequels in dogs with clinical and laboratory diagnosis of distemper. The 24 selected patients were RT-PCR positive for canine distemper, the neurological signs were stable and the CBC was normal 15 days before the treatment with acupuncture combined to electroacupuncture. All animals underwent weekly neurological examination and clinical signs were classified by degree according to a scale developed for the study. Statistical analysis was performed using McNemar's and Wilcoxon’s test to compare the proportions and medians of neurological changes before and after treatment respectively. Fisher test compared the percentage of animals showing cranial nerve changes and localization of the lesions and Kaplan- Meier curves evaluated the percentage of reversion of each clinical sign along treatment. Differences were considered significant when p < 0.05. Grades from III to V abnormal ambulation before treatment progressed to grades I or II in 79.2% and 12.4% respectively. The myoclonus which was present in 50% of the animals (12 of 24), reduced in all animals and was cured in 25% of the animals after treatment (3 of 12). Brain (18 of 24 animals), cranial nerve (18 of 24 animals) and urination (5 of 24 animals) changes were reversed in all cases. It was concluded that acupuncture combined to electroacupuncture is effective to treat neurological sequels of distemper and is currently the best therapeutic option available due to the high cure rate provided

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) can be described as a set of joint and muscle disorders in the region orofacial. Its etiology has multifactorial causes, and may be caused by associations among postural, psychological and structural factors. The acupuncture, because of the whole body approach, is presented as a treatment option indicated for the treatment of TMD patients, since this involves physical and psychosocial aspects. Thus, this study proposes to evaluate the use of acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention in the TMD, verifying its effect on the electrical activity of masticatory muscles, on the psychological aspects of pain level in individuals with this disorder. The study included 40 women aged between 20 and 40 years, with reports of pain in the temporomandibular joint and masticatory muscles. The first 20 volunteers were undergone to acupuncture twice a week for five weeks without interruption and after, they were reassessed. The results of these participants constituted the study group. The other volunteers received the treatment after the first group and their data, collected in the beginning and after 5 weeks without treatment, were utilized as control. The diagnosis of TMD was performed by applying the Diagnostic Criteria for Research of temporomandibular disorders (TMD-RD. Evaluations of the level of pain using a visual analog scale (VAS), severity index of Fonseca and the Craniomandibular Index and Electromyographic (EMG) assessment of masticatory muscles (masseter and anterior temporal bilaterally) were carried out. The evaluations were performed before (Av), soon after (R1) and after 10 session (R10) in the study group. The control group was evaluated at baseline (Av) and after 5 weeks (R10).The results of this study showed after acupuncture therapy 20% of the study group (SG) showed complete extinction of the diagnosis of TMD, while the control group (CG) retained 100% of individuals diagnosed with TMD. The results from the Axis I of RDC / TMD showed that SG has statistically significant increase in all mandibular movements, while in the CG there was a statistically significant reduction of these movements. Regarding the psychological aspects, evaluated by the Axis II of the RDC / TMD, it was verified a reduction in the intensity of chronic orofacial pain and improvements in physical symptoms including pain items in the SG, and the normal classification presented by 35% of participants at baseline rose to 60% at the reassessment. In the CG classification of mild symptoms increased from 10% to 30% and severe classification maintained their initial values. In the physical symptoms excluding pain items, the normal classification observed in 40% of participants increased to 75% after treatment. The severity of the disorder assessed by the Fonseca and craniomandibular indexes showed a significant reduction in SG (p = 0.00 and p = 0.004, respectively). The CG showed no significant differences in these indexes assessments. The EMG results observed in the rest mandibular position demonstrated statistically significant reduction in the electrical activity values in the left temporal muscle (p = 0.0062) immediately after an acupuncture session (R1) and higher electrical activity in the temporal muscles in relation to the masseter, with statistical significance for the left temporal muscle. After treatment (R10) there was a decrease in the EMG at rest, with statistical significance in the temporal muscles, however, these muscles maintained their electrical activity above the masseter. The CG had a higher electrical activity in the temporalis muscles both in the assessment and the reassessment; with statistically increase in the left temporal muscle and left masseter with the prevalence of left temporal muscle. No difference was observed in CG and SG (R1 and R10) during the maximum intercuspal position of the masticatory muscles. In SG, during chewing, there was a statistically significant decrease of activity in the right masseter after treatment. There was no statistical difference during chewing and during left unilateral chewing between CG and SG in the R1. In the SG (R10) there was a statistically significant decrease in electrical activity of the left temporal muscle in left unilateral chewing. From this study, it can be concluded that acupuncture is an effective technique in reducing pain level, the severity index and the electrical activity at mandibular rest in individualswithTMD. / A desordem temporomandibular (DTM) pode ser descrita como um conjunto de distúrbios articulares e musculares na região orofacial. Sua etiologia possui causas multifatoriais, podendo ser originada por associações entre fatores posturais, estruturais e psicológicos. A Acupuntura, pela abordagem da globalidade corporal, apresenta-se como uma opção terapêutica indicada para o tratamento de indivíduos com DTM, uma vez que esta envolve aspectos físicos e psicossociais. Assim, este estudo propõe-se a avaliar o uso da Acupuntura como intervenção terapêutica na DTM, verificando o seu efeito sobre a atividade elétrica dos músculos mastigatórios, sobre aspectos psicológicos e no nível de dor de indivíduos portadores desta desordem. Participaram deste estudo 40 mulheres com idade entre 20 e 40 anos, com relato de dor na região da articulação temporomandibular e músculos mastigatórios. As 20 primeiras participantes foram submetidas à acupuntura duas vezes na semana por cinco semanas ininterruptas e, após foram reavaliadas. Os dados destas participantes constituíram os resultados para grupo de estudo. As demais voluntárias receberam o tratamento após o primeiro grupo e seus dados, coletados no início e após 5 semanas sem tratamento, foram utilizados para controle. O diagnóstico de DTM foi realizado pela aplicação do Critério de Diagnóstico para Pesquisa de Desordens Temporomandibulares (RDC-TMD). Foram realizadas avaliações do nível de dor pela escala visual analógica (EVA), grau de severidade pelo Índice de Fonseca e Índice Craniomandibular, aspectos psicológicos pelo Eixo II do RDC/TMD e a avaliação eletromiográfica dos músculos mastigatórios (masseter e temporal anterior, bilateralmente). As avaliações foram realizadas antes (Av), imediatamente após (R1) e ao final de 10 sessões (R10) no grupo de estudo. No grupo controle, avaliou-se no início (Av) e após 5 semanas (R10). Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que após a terapia de acupuntura 20% do grupo de estudo (GE) apresentou extinção completa da sintomatologia da DTM, enquanto o grupo controle (GC) manteve 100% dos indivíduos com a sintomatologia inicial de DTM. Conforme os resultados do eixo I do RDC/TMD, o GE apresentou aumento estatisticamente significante em todos os movimentos mandibulares, enquanto no GC houve uma redução estatisticamente significante destes movimentos. Quanto aos aspectos psicológicos avaliados pelo Eixo II do RDC/TMD, verificou-se redução da intensidade da dor orofacial crônica e melhora dos sintomas físicos incluindo itens de dor no GE, sendo que a classificação normal apresentada por 35% dos participantes na avaliação inicial passou para 60% na reavaliação. No GC a classificação de sintomas moderada aumentou de 10 % para 30% e a classificação severa manteve seus valores iniciais. Nos sintomas físicos excluindo itens de dor, a classificação normal observada em 40% dos participantes passou para 75% após o tratamento. O grau de severidade avaliado pelo Índice de Fonseca e o Índice Craniomandibular apresentaram redução significativa no GE (p=0,00 e p=0,004 , respectivamente). O GC não apresentou diferença significante na avaliação destes índices. Os resultados eletromiográficos observados na situação de repouso mandibular demonstraram diferença estatisticamente significante para o músculo temporal esquerdo (p=0,0062) com diminuição do valor da atividade elétrica imediatamente após uma sessão(R1) de acupuntura. Também foi verificada uma atividade elétrica de repouso mandibular maior nos músculos temporais em relação aos masseteres, com significância estatística, principalmente para o músculo temporal esquerdo no GE. Após o tratamento (R10) houve diminuição dos valores eletromiográficos em repouso, com significância estatística nos músculos temporais, no entanto, estes músculos mantiveram a sua atividade elétrica superior aos masseteres. O GC apresentou maior atividade elétrica nos músculos temporais na avaliação e, na reavaliação, os músculos temporal esquerdo e masseter esquerdo apresentaram aumento estatisticamente significante da atividade elétrica com prevalência do músculo temporal esquerdo. Não foi observada diferença no GC e GE (R1 e R10) durante a máxima intercuspidação dos músculos mastigatórios. No GE na mastigação habitual, verificou-se redução estatisticamente significante no valor de atividade elétrica no músculo masseter direito. Não houve diferença na mastigação habitual e na mastigação unilateral esquerda entre o GC e o GE na R1. No GE (R10) observou-se uma diminuição estatisticamente significante da atividade elétrica do músculo temporal esquerdo na mastigação unilateral esquerda. Concluí-se com este estudo que a Acupuntura é uma técnica eficaz na redução da dor, na redução grau de severidade e na redução da atividade elétrica em repouso de indivíduos com DTM.

INTRODUCTION: It is estimated that 100 million individuals suffer from chronic pain in the United States. Many of the options involved in chronic pain management have limited effectiveness come with risks of addiction, and/or have numerous side effects. The toll of chronic pain is even more substantial when complications with addiction arise. With an estimated 13.7% of adults having admitted to using pain relief medication for nonmedical purposes in the United States totaling a cost of approximately 55 billion dollars annually, the combined burden of chronic pain and addiction is considerable. To curb the sufferings created by chronic pain, it is essential to investigate its sources, the risks involved with current treatments, and alternative methods to alleviate chronic pain. PURPOSE: The objective of this study is to review the current literature on the topic of nonopioid therapies in the treatment of chronic pain, their ability to reduce opioid prescriptions, and assess their pros and cons. Three different forms of alternative treatments were chosen: 1) psychotherapeutic treatment Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, 2) Eastern Medicine Acupuncture, and 3) pharmacological class cannabinoids. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The current literature on alterative therapies show that cannabinoids had the most potential to decrease pain, followed by CBT, and acupuncture showing the least consistent efficacy. The literature on CBT elucidate a great potential to decrease the use of prescribed opioids without increasing pain while cannabinoids showed a synergistic effect with opioids. The combined results for acupuncture were not consistent, with only one of the studies showing potential to reduce the use of opioids, while the others showed no difference between real and sham acupuncture.