Abstract Recently there has been a renewed impetus in the search for novel ingredients to be used in the cosmeticindustry and Baobab (Adansonia digitata L., Malvaceae) seed oil has received high interest. In this study,a commercial Baobab seed oil sample was characterised (fatty acid content) using GCxGC-ToF-MS and apilot study on the safety and efficacy of the seed oil was performed. The safety and efficacy of Baobab seedoil after topical application was determined using healthy adult female caucasian participants (n = 20).A 2× magnifying lamp was used for visual analysis, while for monitoring and evaluation of the irritancylevel, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) and hydration level of the skin, Chromameter®, Aquaflux®andCorneometer®instruments, respectively, were used. In addition, Aquaflux®and Corneometer®instru-ments were used to assess occlusive effects. Thirteen methyl esters were identified using GCxGC-ToF-MS.The major fatty acids included 36.0% linoleic acid, 25.1% oleic acid and 28.8% palmitic acid with 10.1%constituting trace fatty acids. The irritancy of sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS) in the patch test differedsignificantly compared to both de-ionised water (p < 0.001) and Baobab seed oil (p < 0.001) but the dif-ference between the irritancy of Baobab seed oil and de-ionised water was not significant (p = 0.850).The moisture efficacy test indicated a reduced TEWL (p = 0.048) and an improved capacitance moistureretention (p < 0.001) for all the test products (Baobab oil, liquid paraffin, Vaseline®intensive care lotionand Vaseline®). The occlusivity wipe-off test indicated an increased moisture hydration (p < 0.001) anddecreased TEWL particularly when Baobab oil was applied. Baobab possesses hydrating, moisturising andocclusive properties when topically applied to the skin. Baobab seed oil could be a valuable functionalingredient for cosmeceutical applications.

Caption: “Water-home sewerage in a Baobab Tree at Mutino-Mulilo (?Katima), Eastern Caprivi. Headquarters of Major Trollip, Native Commissioner. Ca. 1940’s”

@Adansonia digitata@L. (Malvaceae) is a huge multipurpose tree of the savannahs of sub-Saharan Africa with high economic potential for local communities. The edible fruits and leaves are known for their high nutritional values and can be used fresh or processed. However, a high intra-specific variability regarding morphology, genetics and nutritional content of baobab and its products is documented for several African regions, while data for Kenya is largely lacking. This study aimed at documenting the genetic and morphological variability of baobab accessions in Kenya and at checking the presence of the newly described diploid baobab species @Adansonia kilima@. Samples were collected from 204 baobab trees from seven populations defined by geographical distance in South-eastern and Coastal Kenya at altitudes of 6-1,058 m asl. Leaf or bark samples for genetic diversity assessment were collected from all 204 trees, while leaves only from 65 and fruits from 76 trees (all in inland locations) for morphological analyses based on the publication Descriptors for Baobab. Nine microsatellite loci were used to assess genetic variation and results analysed with specific software because of the tetraploid nature of baobab. Overall genetic diversity was high and all loci were polymorphic. The mean gene diversity was 0.803 and observed heterozygosity was 0.907. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed low variation among populations (12.4%) and high variation within populations (87.6%). Bayesian clustering and Principal Coordinate Analysis divided the accessions into two clusters, one with only inland and one with coastal accessions. Although the presence of @Adansonia kilima@ was previously postulated for Kenya, flow cytometry did not detect any among the analysed samples as only tetraploids were observed. Regarding morphological characteristics, no differences among the fruit accession from inland populations were found (no fruits were collected in coastal areas). Leaf morphological data showed significant differences between inland and coastal populations with longest leaflets and leaf petioles in accession from the Coast, thus confirming the results obtained for genetic analysis. This study contributes to the overall knowledge of the genetic diversity of baobab in Kenya and can contribute to the development of germplasm conservation strategies and domestication programs for baobab.

Thesis (M. A. (Anthropology)) --University of Limpopo, 2016. / The baobab tree (Adansonia digitata), with more than 300 cultural and ethnobotanical uses in Africa has been identified as one of the most important savanna trees to be conserved, domesticated and valorised on the continent. A decline in baobab populations due to overexploitation could have a significant negative effect on African livelihoods. Therefore, it is important to determine potential strategies for the conservation of this tree species. The study aimed to explore the cultural significance and ethnobotanical use, as well as conservation of baobab trees by the Sagole community in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Furthermore, the conservation efforts of this community and the provincial government were also elucidated. In the Sagole community 40 local community members, aged 20 years and older, were selected via convenience sampling. A semi-structured questionnaire was employed to collect information on the cultural significance of baobab trees to members of this community. Research questions focussed specifically on identifying folk taxonomy, the transfer of species-specific information to younger generations, and cultural taboos pertaining to the baobab. It has been discovered that young people of Sagole are not well versed in the cultural value pertaining to baobabs. Furthermore, members of the community and the village head (chief) have limited knowledge related to taboos associated with this species. Thus, when individuals transgressed a taboo related to this tree species there is no formal punishment. Sagole community members use baobab trees for various purposes such as food and medicine. The species is used medically to cure various ailments. Most inhabitants in the community harvest this tree. The most common plant parts harvested for cultural use are the fruits, bark, roots and leaves. However, community members have limited knowledge about the taboos related to harvesting of this majestic tree.

Tree species belonging to the genus Acacia have a significant impact ecologically and economically in southern Africa. Together with the African baobab, these trees are recognized as icons of the African landscape. They are widely distributed in this area and extensively used by local communities as sources of energy, stock feed, medical remedies and building material. There is still a substantial lack of knowledge regarding the ecological association between these plants and other living organisms such as fungi. This is, however, not new to the African continent where fungi are generally poorly studied and collected, and it is envisaged that many new fungal species will be discovered as scientists focus their efforts more on this geographical niche. An example of the lack of knowledge on the fungal biodiversity in Africa is reflected in the limited reports of members of the Botryosphaeriaceae, described to date from Acacia spp.. A review on phytopathogens in South Africa by Crous et al. (2000) indicated no records of the Botryosphaeriaceae associated with native Acacia spp. Despite the importance of many species within the Botryosphaeriaceae as pathogens, knowledge about the true diversity and taxonomy of species in this family is limited, especially where native plant communities are concerned. This dissertation attempts to contribute to knowledge on the associations between members of the Botryosphaeriaceae and indigenous Acacia trees in southern Africa, and the possible role they may play in diseases of these trees. Chapter 1 represents a literature review that focuses on fungi previously associated with Acacia spp. on the African continent. Information provided in this chapter refers to available reports on pathogens and saprophytes occurring on Acacia spp. that are both native and nonnative to Africa. Special reference is made to those occurring in southern Africa. Due to the concern of the introduction of new pathogens in areas where native and non-native plants are co-existing, emphises is also placed on the possibility of pathogen-host jumps between native and non-native Acacia spp. The potential threat they might pose to the future biosecurity of these important trees is discussed. Acacia mellifera, also known as the blackthorn, is one of the native African Acacia spp. that has been extensively studied. This tree is threatened by a serious die-back disease with symptoms similar to the die-back typically caused by members of the Botryosphaeriaceae. In an effort to understand the association of the Botryosphaeriaceae with native Acacia spp. in southern Africa, a study was undertaken to search for the presence of these fungi on especially A. mellifera in Namibia and the Pretoria area in South Africa. Other Acacia spp. were also sampled in cases where they were present in the same areas as A. mellifera. These results are presented in chapter 2. In a previous study, the fungal diversity of native trees and plant species in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa was studied. This resulted in the isolation of a number of fungi that resembled the morphological characteristics of the Botryosphaeriaceae. In chapter 3, these fungi were further identified to species level based on morphological and phylogenetic characteristics. In chapter 4 an attempt was made to compare the Botryosphaeriaceae that are associated with important native trees with those occurring on non-native trees. To accomplish this, a pilot study was done to investigate the presence of the Botryosphaeriaceae on A. mearnsii in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Results from chapters 2 and 3 on native Acacia spp. from Namibia and South Africa served as the bases of comparison for this chapter. Results of previous studies that investigated diseases of plantation grown A. mearnsii were also included for comparison. Lastly, a summary is included to review the results of this study and also the significance and impact these results made, not only on the taxonomy of the Botryosphaeriaceae, but also understanding the fungal biodiversity of indigenous tree species in southern Africa. To date, this is the most extensive study of the Botryosphaeriaceae associated with native African Acacia spp. and it is also the first study that resulted in the describtion of so many new species in this group of fungi from a single host. Results from this study indicated that there is a significantly greater diversity in the Botryosphaeriaceae associated with native Acacia spp. in southern Africa than was previously thought. This dissertation attempts to form the basis for future studies to finally understand the interactions between the Botryosphaeriaceae and their native hosts as well as their role and threat as pathogens to indigenous and economically important plants. Copyright / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted

Der Baobab (Adansonia digitata) ist ein mächtiger und laubabwerfender Baum, der im Sudan heimisch ist. Neben den Früchten bietet er eine Vielzahl von Verwendungsmöglichkeiten u.a. als Nahrungs- und Heilmittel. Die Tamarinde (Tamarindus indica) ist ein graziöser und immergrüner Baum, der im Sudan verbreitet ist. Die Früchte sind bei der Bevölkerung sehr begehrt. Weiterhin ist er Grundlage für viele Forstprodukte. Im Zentralsudan konnten weitere Wildobstarten identifiziert werden, die zur Sicherung der Nahrungsgrundlage der ländlichen Bevölkerung in den Savannen beitragen. Vor allem im Nordsudan existieren große, potenzielle Agrarflächen, auf denen die Bodenversalzung als limitierender Faktor wirkt. Um Nahrungssicherheit für die zunehmende Bevölkerung zu gewährleisten, erlagen diese marginalen Flächen immer mehr an Bedeutung. Die Gewächshausversuche über einen Zeitraum von 20 Wochen zeigten, dass bei Adansonia digitata-Sämlingen das Wachstum und der Stoffwechsel bereits bei Salzbelastungen von 20 mM NaCl stark beeinflusst wurden. Daher kann diese Art im Sämlingsstadium als sehr salzempfindlich eingestuft werden. Tamarindus indica-Sämlinge tolerierten Salzbelastungen von 40 mM NaCl. Daraus folgt, dass die Tamarinde im Vergleich zu anderen Obstarten im Sämlingsstadium relativ salzverträglich ist. Unter den gegebenen Versuchsumständen ist zu vermuten, dass die Tamarinde eher geeignet scheint für die Kultivierung in salzbelasteten semiariden Gebieten. / The Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is a massive, deciduous tree and native to Sudan. Beside its fruits, the Baobab has an exceedingly wide range of uses ranging from food and beverages to medicinal uses. The tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is an aesthetic, evergreen tree and grows wild throughout Sudan. Its fruits are highly appreciated by the people. In addition, the tree provides a diversity of further important forest products. A number of under-utilised species with edible fruits were identified in Central Sudan. Fruits of these indigenous species play an important role in the diet of rural people in the savanna belt, especially during famines and food shortages. Particularly in Northern Sudan there are vast areas of potentially arable land which are affected by salinity to variable degrees. In order to maintain food security for the increasing population, this land is becoming more and more important. The results of the greenhouse experiments over a period of 20 weeks indicate that a salinity level of 20 mM NaCl strongly influences growth and metabolism of Adansonia digitata seedlings. Therefore in the seedling stage the species can be characterised as salt-sensitive. Tamarindus indica seedlings tolerated a salinity level of 40 mM NaCl. This indicates that in the seedling stage tamarind is a fairly salt tolerant tree species compared to other fruit trees. The conclusion of the greenhouse experiments indicates that the tamarind seems to be the more suitable under-utilized fruit tree species for cultivation in semi-arid areas with salinity problems.

Thesis (M. A. (Anthropology)) -- University of Limpopo, 2016 / The baobab tree (Adansonia digitata), with more than 300 cultural and ethnobotanical uses in Africa has been identified as one of the most important savanna trees to be conserved, domesticated and valorised on the continent. A decline in baobab populations due to overexploitation could have a significant negative effect on African livelihoods. Therefore, it is important to determine potential strategies for the conservation of this tree species. The study aimed to explore the cultural significance and ethnobotanical use, as well as conservation of baobab trees by the Sagole community in the Vhembe District of the Limpopo Province, South Africa. Furthermore, the conservation efforts of this community and the provincial government were also elucidated. In the Sagole community 40 local community members, aged 20 years and older, were selected via convenience sampling. A semi-structured questionnaire was employed to collect information on the cultural significance of baobab trees to members of this community. Research questions focussed specifically on identifying folk taxonomy, the transfer of species-specific information to younger generations, and cultural taboos pertaining to the baobab. It has been discovered that young people of Sagole are not well versed in the cultural value pertaining to baobabs. Furthermore, members of the community and the village head (chief) have limited knowledge related to taboos associated with this species. Thus, when individuals transgressed a taboo related to this tree species there is no formal punishment. Sagole community members use baobab trees for various purposes such as food and medicine. The species is used medically to cure various ailments. Most inhabitants in the community harvest this tree. The most common plant parts harvested for cultural use are the fruits, bark, roots and leaves. However, community members have limited knowledge about the taboos related to harvesting of this majestic tree.

Newspaper article: "Trunk call answered”. With two handwritten notes: "Also shown on S.A.B.C. Television July 1980", and, "Note some scars on bark to left of the door ...".

The current research was done to evaluate the nutritive values and the ruminal degradation of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) from three non-conventional oil cakes, viz: amarula (Sclerocarya birrea) (AOC), macadamia (Integrifolia) (MOC) and baobab (Adansonia digitate L.) (BOC). The oil cakes were collected from biodiesel producers in Limpopo Province, transported to the ARC-Animal Production campus, where proximate and ruminal nutrient degradation analysis were conducted. Triplicates samples from each oil cake were analyzed for the nutritive values, mineral and amino acids contents. Three rumen cannulated mid-lactating (days in milk; DIM: 180±5) Holstein cows weighing 667±43 kg body weight were allocated to determine the in situ ruminal dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) degradation. The cows were offered a totally mixed ration (TMR) (60 concentrate: 40 forage ratio) that was compounded according to their daily nutrient requirements, and were milking was done twice per day at 12 hrs intervals. The three oil cake samples were ground using a 2-mm screen after which sub-samples (6.5 g) were put in 10 x 20 cm; 50 μm pore size polyester bags to achieve 15 mg/cm² (ratio of the sample size to surface area). The bags were then fistulated in each cow’s rumen in triplicate for a period of 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, or 48 hrs. After being incubated, the bags were removed from the rumen and washed with cold (4°C) water in 20-L buckets. Following immersing in cold water, the bags were machine washed until clean water was obtained. The bags were then dried at 60 °C in an oven for 48 hrs. The dried bags were individually weighed, and the content of each bag were removed and stored into glass vial until analysis. The remaining two duplicate sets of each sample were rinsed using cold water in order to determine solubility at 0 hrs. The AOC had higher (P<0.05) ether extract (EE) and CP content than both BOC and MOC. Macadamia oilcake (MOC) and BOC had higher (P<0.05) fractions of fibre (NDF, ADF and ADL) compared to the AOC. The AOC had greater (P<0.05) content of essential amino acids than in the BOC and MOC. Additionally, AOC had a high (P<0.05) phosphorus, but low calcium and potassium concentration. While AOC had high effective degradability of DM, it also had high water soluble as well as DM and CP rapidly degradable fractions. Effective degradation of CP was higher in AOC and BOC than in MOC. However, BOC had a high insoluble but degradable fraction of CP. Further work to determine the toxicology of these non-conventional oil cakes and animal feeding experiments is needed / Agriculture and  Animal Health / MSc. Agriculture