The purpose of the present study was to examine the applicability of a model of bereavement to the long-term adjustment to loss. Based on Allen's (1990) model, it was predicted that the variables experienced competence, perceived resources, and the impact of the loss would contribute strongly to overall long-term bereavement adjustment. It was also predicted that time and multiple losses would impact adjustment to loss.

The present study examined the relationship between coping and psychological and psychosomatic distress of 25 individuals who experienced the same severe, acute traumatic event: the violent shooting that killed 23 people and severely injured 20 more in Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas, on October 16, 1991. Distress was assessed by one-month pre-event and post-event scores on the SCL-90R, Psychosomatic Questionnaire, and by a Life Event Questionnaire score for the year before the incident. Coping was measured by a modified version of the Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman et al., 1986) and Response Style Questionnaire (Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, 1991). All post-event distress scores, except the Psychosomatic score, significantly increased over their corresponding pre-event scores regardless of gender. Although female distress scores were consistently higher than male scores, gender was predictive of post-event distress only for the SCL-90R Anxiety, Somatization, and Global Severity Index scales. The only pre-event score found to be predictive of post-event distress was the Psychosomatic scale. Regression analysis, with demographic and pre-event variables controlled, found a significant positive relationship between Escape/Avoidance coping and one-month post-event levels of Anxiety and Psychosomatic distress. Findings were discussed in the context of the process-oriented stress-illness model and were compared to current disaster and crime victimization literature. Implications for helping professionals, methodological issues, and implications for future research were explored.

Four hundred and thirty-eight participants who had lost a close friend or family in the last 2 years completed questionnaires regarding their experiences with the funeral. Results indicated individuals emotionally close to the deceased person reported higher levels of participation in funeral rituals and greater levels of bereavement adjustment. Those emotionally distant from the deceased person reported greater satisfaction with the funeral. Individuals who viewed the deceased person as a central figure in their lives had greater participation in the funeral. Those who viewed the deceased person as a peripheral figure had higher levels of bereavement adjustment. Additionally, those who viewed the death as unpreventable reported greater satisfaction with the funeral, and had higher levels of bereavement adjustment.

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which levels of individuation and separation in adulthood would predict adjustment to the empty nest transition. Two-hundred and twenty-seven adults (M age = 48) who had experienced the empty nest within the last year completed a battery of scales assessing individuation from family of origin, spouse, and children as well as measures of adjustment, role strain, coping, and sex role attitudes. MANOVAS and hierarchical regression analyses suggested that levels of individuation from one's family of origin, spouse, and children differentially affect one's adjustment to, and coping with, the experience of launching of the youngest child from the home. Empty nest parents who are less differentiated from their own parents, from their spouses, and from their children reported a more negative impact of the empty nest in terms of more overall stress and role strain, more negative mood, and less life satisfaction than did empty nest parents who were more differentiated with regard to parents, spouse, and children. Results regarding the impact of individuation on empty nest adjustment regarding sex role attitudes were less clear cut, and may reflect cohort differences in work role opportunities for women and a parallel redefinition of the work role/parent role dichotomy for men. The data also suggest that women and men experience the empty nest transition differently, with women experiencing more distress and negative mood, supporting the notion that women, who define themselves in a context of relationship may experience more distress at a time when significant relationships are in flux. However, additional results which indicated significantly more proactive and adaptive coping strategies for women as compared to men suggest that women can meet the demands of the new definitions of themselves and their relationships in a relatively positive and adaptive way. The results suggest that present as well as past experiences of separation and individuation impact how one experiences and copes with the empty nest. The findings lend support to the importance of early, successful individuation experiences as possible precursors of how successfully individuals negotiate other developmental experiences involving separation and loss.

This research examined the influence of psychological temperament and family-of-origin socialization influences on relationship adjustment in marriage. The major goals were to determine: (a) if there was a relationship between the temperament of one mate in the marriage and the temperament of his or her spouse, and (b) if there was a relationship between the marital adjustment scores of a mate relative to either personal temperament or that of his or her spouse. A secondary purpose was to determine if certain family-of-origin socialization experiences influenced adjustment in marriage. One hundred seventy-nine couples (H = 358) completed three test instruments including the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, 1962), Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier, 1976), and the Socialization Background Questionnaire (Church, unpublished), along with a demographic questionnaire. The subjects, volunteers from 12 churches in a large metropolitan area, had mean ages of 35.3 and 33.6 years for husbands and wives, respectively, and had been married for an average of 10.1 years. Five hypotheses and two research questions were tested at the .05 level of significance. The results gathered did not support the hypothesis that there was a relationship between temperament type and mate selection. Similarly, no support was evidenced for any specific relationship between temperament and marital adjustment. On the Socialization Background Questionnaire, one relationship at the prescribed level of significance was present between husbands' self-concept and their marital adjustment scores. At the .10 significance level, there was also indication that husbands' marital adjustment was related to the acceptance they did or did not receive as children., regardless of the expectations held for them. Neither of these relationships was present with regard to wives' marital adjustment scores. The overall conclusions are that couples do not choose mates based on temperaments, that no relationship exists between temperament combinations and marital adjustment, and that socialization experiences affect marital adjustment differently for husbands and wives.

Low back pain has long been estimated to be the most prevalent and debilitating source of chronic pain. The present study first reviews the literature addressing the various theories of pain, the physiological and psychological variables important in pain research, and the psychotherapeutic approaches that have been used to date to reduce pain. Thirty-seven hospitalized chronic back pain patients were administered the cold-pressor test and a medical pain stimulus procedure which was medically relevant to their back pathology. A card-sort method was utilized in order to assess the coping strategies employed by the patients during these two pain stimulus tasks. These procedures were repeated following treatment. Coping strategies used by patients during the two pain tasks were compared. Results demonstrated that there was a significant difference in the manner in which patients coped with the two types of pain. Cold-pressor measures of pain threshold and tolerance were not significantly different between pretreatment and post-treatment. These measures were also not positively correlated with treatment outcome. A multiple regression approach demonstrated that particular coping strategies were significantly predictive of treatment outcome. The medical pain stimulus procedure was found to provide more significant pedictor variables than the cold-pressor test. At pre-treatment assessment, patients who relied on dramatized coping strategies were less likely to be successful in treatment. Breathing activity and pain acknowledgement were positive coping techniques highly predictive of successful outcome in this study. The use of computers for assessment and other recommendations for future research were discussed.

The present study examined the links between whole family interaction patterns, parent-child attachment, and child emotional adjustment in a sample of 86 community families with children between the ages of 8 and 11. Family interactions were observed and coded with the System for Coding Interactions and Family Functioning (SCIFF; Lindahl, 2001). Target children completed the Children’s Coping Strategies Questionnaire (CCSQ; Yunger, Corby, & Perry, 2005), and the Behavior Assessment System for Children- 2nd Edition, Self Report of Personality (BASC-2 SRP; Reynolds &Kamphaus, 2004). Results of hierarchical regressions indicated that Secure and Avoidant attachment each independently predicted children’s emotional symptoms in some models. Family Cohesion and Positive Affect moderated the relationship between father-child attachment and children’s emotional symptoms. Results of the current study support the utility of considering dyadic attachment and family interaction patterns conjointly when conceptualizing and treating children’s emotional outcomes.

The focus of this investigation is to assess the relationship between false self behavior, object relations and attachment variables, and adjustment. Theory suggests that object relations and attachment are interrelated, and have been independently linked to psychological consequences. Theory also postulates a relationship between false self behavior and object relations theory. Given the interrelatedness of object relations and attachment theory it is possible that false self behavior may also be linked to attachment variables. While the relationship between object relations and false self behavior seems to have been established object relations theory and attachment theory have not been studied in tandem as related to false self behavior. In addition, this investigation will explore the relationship of adjustment variables to attachment and object relations variables. Undergraduate males and females will be solicited for participation, and will be asked to complete self-report questionnaires measuring false self behavior, object relations, attachment, and adjustment. The primary research hypothesis is that less false self behavior will be related to mature object relations, secure attachment, and fewer symptoms.

D.Ed. / Apartheid and underdevelopment have shaped the educational system in South Africa. Previously South African public schools have been segregated according to race and separate education systems had been instituted for the four main population groups since the early foundations of educations. Racially mixed schools were prohibited. With the transformation of South Africa to a democratic country, where the African National Congress came to power in 1994, many changes took place. One of these was fundamental changes to the educational system with the admittance of learners of all races to previously racially segregated schools. Many parents from townships welcomed the opportunity to have their children attend schools in urban areas to expose them to education that they perceive to be of a higher standard than that in township schools. This movement of learners from all ethnic groups to English medium schools has necessitated some changes in these schools to accommodate the unique characteristics of learners from diverse cultural, linguistic and socio-economic backgrounds. It is important to note that these learners bring to the classroom languages and cultures previously underrepresented. Learners who come from different cultural or linguistic backgrounds are often seen as environmentally deprived simply because of their “being different” from the dominant culture. These learners begin their schooling with certain lags that may be due to the fact that they have a limited understanding of the language of instruction. These communication difficulties are exacerbated when the learner is confronted with a foreign culture that may cause anxiety and frustration as well as insecurity. This, in turn, becomes the educator’s problem, because learning is impeded under such circumstances. Grade eight learners in transition from township schools may also have added difficulties on account of their required adjustment to changes linked to their developmental phase, namely adolescence. The aim of this study was to explore and describe the experiences of LEP grade eight learners in transition from township schools to English multicultural schools in order to develop an intervention programme for educators and educational psychologists with regard of support for these learners. The research was conducted from the qualitative paradigm. It included a literature review, individual and focus group interviews with learner, their educators and their parents, essays by LEP learners and observation of these learners. A purposive sample of ten learners from each six English medium secondary schools in Gauteng was selected. Data analysis was deductive. Categories of meaning included the following: scholastic performance, emotional factors, behavioural factors, sociological factors, cultural factors, environmental factors, educator attitudes and, finally, transition and adjustment. The three groups of respondents agreed to a large extent on the experiences of LEP learners. An intervention programme, based on the findings of the study, was developed for educators and educational psychologists to render support for LEP learners in order to facilitate their learning and adjustment in multicultural schools. The principal areas of the programme aimed at providing and inclusive, inviting educational approach that will enable learners to feel included and valued in the school, while improving their learning and adjustment. / Prof. J. Pillay

M.A. / The ramifications of stress-related illnesses and disorders impact on the individual, the organization that the individual works for and the nation’s economic status as a whole. Coping with occupational stress has thus become the focus of occupational health specialists, organizations and industrial psychologists. South African managers and executives work under constant stress and pressure (Strumpfer, 1983). With the emergence of women into previously male dominated occupations, a greater number of women now hold managerial jobs, resulting in a larger percentage of women being exposed to stress-related illnesses and diseases. Past research regarding occupational stress and coping has largely focused on male managers, with many of these findings frequently being incorrectly generalized to women. Neglecting to include gender as a variable in most stress-related research has resulted in contradictions and perceived biases in the study of stress and coping (Barnett, Biener & Baruch, 1987). A review of the literature indicated that some studies report gender similarities in stress and coping, whilst others report that men and woman differ in this regard. The findings of these studies have been critically evaluated in the literature with some authors indicating that the measurement instruments and research designs of the studies were not adequate. The many contradictions found in the literature pertaining to how men and women cope with stress thus provided an important motivation for the present study. The overall aim of the research was to determine whether male and female managers differed in work-related stressors and whether they differed in the coping strategies adopted to deal with the stressors. A more general aim of the study was to amplify any existing research regarding occupational stress and its impact on men and women managers. A comparative ex post facto research design was applied. In this type of design, the researcher selects two or more groups of subjects that already differ according to one variable. The total sample (N= 70) consisted of 35 male managers and 35 female managers. The subjects worked in administrative support functions and were selected from two large financial organizations. The measurement instruments had to be culturally fair and have universal meaningfulness. Only instruments with sound psychometric properties were selected. The battery of five questionnaires consisted of: two tests taken from the Occupational Stress Inventory-Revised, namely the Occupational Roles Questionnaire (ORQ) and the Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ). The other three questionnaires consisted of the Sense of Coherence Questionnaire (SOC), the Locus of Control Inventory (LCI) and the Personal Views Survey (PVS). The research question for the present study was whether there are any significant differences between men and women regarding occupational stress and coping resources. The composite null hypothesis was formulated as follows: There are no statistically significant differences between men and women regarding their scores on a battery of five instruments measuring the sources of occupational stress specifically with reference to role strain in the workplace, psychological strain as a result of work stress, sense of coherence, internal or external locus of control and hardiness. In order to ascertain the difference between the two groups, the statistical techniques included the use of the Hotelling’s T-Square Test and Student’s t-test. The overall results, with the exception of the Personal Strain Questionnaire’s sub-scale reported no significant gender differences regarding the perception of occupational stessors, and no overall significant gender differences in coping resources. Thus, regarding the scores of the five questionnaires the following results were reported: The scores taken from the Occupational Role Questionnaire (ORQ) reported a Hotelling’s Trace Value of 0,039 with an associated F value of 0,410. This variance is statistically not significant (P>0,05). The scores taken from the Personal Strain Questionnaire (PSQ) reported a Hotelling’s Trace Value of 0,181 with an associated F value of 2,944. This variance is statistically significant (P<0,05). The difference manifested only in one sub-scale, namely the Vocational Strain sub-scale (P=0,075) which is significant at the 0,10 level of significance. In speculating the reason for this, it was suggested that the male subjects may have experienced greater levels of boredom or lack of interest in their work than the female group. Interestingly, the male group also reported a significant difference regarding the Meaningfulness sub-scale of the Sense of Coherence Questionnaire. The Meaningfulness sub-scale (P=0,060) being significant at the 0,10 level of significance. The Meaningfulness sub-scale includes a motivational element similar to the Vocational Strain sub-scale, further reinforcing the male group’s less positive perception of their work. The scores taken from the Sense of Coherence Questionnaire (SOC) reported a Hotelling’s Trace Value of 0,069 with an associated F value of 1,517. This variance is statistically not significant (P>0,05). The scores taken from the Locus of Control Inventory (LCI) reported a Hotelling’s Trace Value of 0,084 with an associated F value of 1,851. This variance is statistically not significant (P>0,05). The scores taken from the Personal Views Survey (PVS) reported a Hotelling’s Trace Value of 0,048 with an associated F value of 1,051. This variance is statistically not significant (P>0,05). The final conclusion of the study’s findings was that with the exception of one scale, there were no overall significant differences in the way that men and women a) perceive occupational stressors and b) utilize coping resources. The findings of the present study have challenged the widely held belief that men and women should be different in the way they think, feel and respond to stress-related events. It is hoped that the present study has not only amplified any existing research regarding occupational stress and coping, but has provided further ideas and recommendations for the design and implementation of South African occupational stress management programmes.