Titanium (Ti) foams of different densities 1622-4100 Kgm-3 made by a powder sintering technique were studied as to their structural and mechanical properties. The foams were tested under static and dynamic loading. The material was tested quasi statically and dynamically under strain rates in the range of 0.001-2500 s-1 and under different loading modes. It was found that strain rate sensitivity is more pronounced in lower density foams. Experiments were complimented by virtual testing. Based on the Voronoi tessellations a computational method was developed to generate stochastic foam geometries. Statistical control was applied to produce geometries with the microstructural characteristics of the tested material. The generated structures were numerically tested under different loading modes and strain rates. Voronoi polyhedrals were used to form the porosity network of the open cell foams. The virtually generated foams replicated the geometrical features of the experimentally tested material. Meshes for finite element simulations were produced. Existing material models were used for the parent material behaviour (sintered Ti) and calibrated to experiments. The virtual foam geometries of different densities were numerically tested quasi statically under uniaxial, biaxial and triaxial loading modes in order to investigate their macroscopic behaviour. Dynamic loading was also applied for compression. Strain rate sensitive and insensitive models were used for the parent material model in order to examine the influence of geometry and material strain rate sensitivity under high rates of deformation. It was found that inertial effects can enhance the strain rate sensitivity for low density foams and numerical predictions for the generated foam geometries were in very good agreement with experimental results. Power laws were established in scaling material properties with density. The study includes: 1. Information on the material behaviour and data for macroscopically modelling this type of foams for a range of densities and under different strain rates. 2. A proposed method for virtually generating foam geometries at a microscopic scale and examine the effect of geometrical characteristics on the macroscopic behaviour of foams.

The Cold-Electron Bolometer (CEB) is a sensitive detector of millimeter-wave radiation, in which tunnel junctions are used as temperature sensors of a nanoscale normal metal strip absorber. The absorber is fed by an antenna via two Superconductor-Insulator-Normal metal (SIN) tunnel junctions, fabricated at both ends of the absorber. Incoming photons excite electrons, heating the whole electron system. The incoming RF power is determined by measuring the tunneling current through the SIN junctions. Since electrons at highest energy levels escape the absorber through the tunnel junctions, it causes cooling of the absorber. This electron cooling provides electro-thermal feedback that makes the saturation power of a CEB well above that of other types of millimeter-wave receivers. The key features of CEB detectors are high sensitivity, large dynamic range, fast response, easy integration in arrays on planar substrates, and simple readout. The high dynamic range allows the detector to operate under relatively high background levels. In this thesis, we present the development and successful operation of CEB, focusing on the fabrication technology and different implementations of the CEB for efficient detection of electromagnetic signals. We present the CEB detector integrated across a unilateral finline deposited on a planar substrate. We have measured the finline-integrated CEB performance at 280-315 mK using a calibrated black-body source mounted inside the cryostat. The results have demonstrated strong response to the incoming RF power and reasonable sensitivity. We also present CEB devices fabricated with advanced technologies and integrated in log-periodic, double-dipole and cross-slot antennas. The measured CEB performance satisfied the requirements of the balloon-borne experiment BOOMERANG and could be considered for future balloon-borne and ground-based instruments. In this thesis we also investigated a planar phase switch integrated in a back-to-back finline for modulating the polarization of weak electromagnetic signals. We examine the switching characteristics and demonstrate that the switching speed of the device is well above the speed required for phase modulation in astronomical instruments. We also investigated the combination of a detector and a superconducting phase switch for modulating the polarization of electromagnetic radiation.

This thesis examines the dynamic mechanical properties of natural silk fibres, mainly from silkworm species Bombyx mori (B. mori) and spider species Nephila edulis, using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, DMTA. The aim is not only to provide novel data on mechanical properties of silk, but also to relate these properties to the structure and morphology of silk. A systematic approach is adopted to evaluate the effect of the three principal factors of stress, temperature and hydration on the properties and structure of silk. The methods developed in this work are then used to examine commercially important aspects of the ‘quality’ of silk. I show that the dynamic storage modulus of silks increases with loading stress in the deformation through yield to failure, whereas the conventional engineering tensile modulus decreases significantly post-yield. Analyses of the effects of temperature and thermal history show a number of important effects: (1) the loss peak at -60 °C is found to be associated the protein-water glass transition; (2) the increase in the dynamic storage modulus of native silks between temperature +25 and 100 °C is due simply to water loss; (3) a number of discrete loss peaks from +150 to +220°C are observed and attributed to the glass transition of different states of disordered structure with different intermolecular hydrogen bonding. Excess environmental humidity results in a lower effective glass transition temperature (Tg) for disordered silk fractions. Also, humidity-dynamic mechanical analysis on Nephila edulis spider dragline silks has shown that the glass transition induces a partial supercontraction, called Tg contraction. This new finding leads to the conclusion of two independent mechanisms for supercontraction in spider dragline silks. Study of three commercial B. mori cocoon silk grades and a variety of processed silks or artificial silks shows that lower grade and poorly processed silks display lower Tg values, and often have a greater loss tangent at Tg due to increased disorder. This suggests that processing contributes significantly to the differences in the structural order among natural or unnatural silks. More importantly, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis is proposed to be a potential tool for quality evaluation and control in silk production and processing. In summary, I demonstrate that DMTA is a valuable analytical tool for understanding the structure and properties of silk, and use a systematic approach to understand quantitatively the important mechanical properties of silk in terms of a generic structural framework in silk proteins.

Το αντικείμενο της παρούσας Διδακτορικής Διατριβής είναι η ανάπτυξη και ο χαρακτηρισμός προηγμένων υλικών για εφαρμογές σε νανοδιατάξεις. Στα πλαίσια αυτής, επικεντρωθήκαμε στην ανάπτυξη και μελέτη μαγνητικών και ημιαγωγικών λεπτών υμενίων που βασίζονται σε οξείδια παραδοσιακών μετάλλων και ημιαγωγών. Ο μαγνητικός και οπτικός χαρακτηρισμός των υλικών αυτών υπό τη μορφή της νανοδομής του λεπτού υμενίου, αποκαλύπτουν νέες ιδιότητες με εξαιρετικά μεγάλο τεχνολογικό ενδιαφέρον. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, έγινε καταρχήν ανάπτυξη πολυστρωματικών μαγνητικών υμενίων Ni/NiO, μονοστρωματικών ημιαγωγικών υμενίων Cu2O, CuO και NiO, όπως επίσης και μονοστρωματικών άμορφων μονωτικών υμενίων SiOx με ή και χωρίς ενσωματωμένες κβαντικές τελείες Si. Για κάθε σειρά υμενίων από τις κατηγορίες αυτές, έγινε μελέτη των μαγνητικών ή/και των οπτικών τους ιδιοτήτων. Τα υμένια Ni/NiO αναπτύχθηκαν σε διαφορετικά υποστρώματα με τη χρήση μιας μόνο κεφαλής magnetron sputtering και της μεθόδου της φυσικής οξείδωσης. Η διαστρωμάτωση του υλικού και η επαναληψιμότητα της μεθόδου αποδείχθηκαν εξαιρετικής ποιότητας. Για υμένια Ni/NiO με διαφορετικό πάχος στρώματος Ni έγινε εκτεταμένη μελέτη της εξάρτησης της μαγνήτισης και της ανισοτροπίας από τη θερμοκρασία. Βρέθηκε ότι τα υμένια με λεπτά στρώματα Ni εμφανίζουν τάση για κάθετη μαγνητική ανισοτροπία, η οποία προέρχεται από την υπολογίσιμη θετική ανισοτροπία επιφανείας που επιδεικνύουν αυτά. Τα ημιαγωγικά υμένια οξειδίων του Cu και του Νi αναπτύχθηκαν μετά από οξείδωση υμενίων των αντίστοιχων μεταβατικών μετάλλων. Τα άμορφα μονωτικά υμένια SiOx αναπτύχθηκαν με τη τεχνική της “reactive” ιοντοβολής. Στη συνέχεια, μέρος αυτών οξειδώθηκε πλήρως μετά από θέρμανση σε θερμοκρασία 950 οC και σε περιβάλλον αέρα, ενώ κάποια άλλα υποβλήθηκαν σε θερμική αποσύνθεση μετά από θέρμανση σε συνθήκες κενού στους 1000 οC. Με τη διαδικασία της θερμικής αποσύνθεσης, όπως αποδεικνύουν και οι εικόνες ηλεκτρονικής μικροσκοπίας, σχηματίζονται νανοκρύσταλλοι Si ενσωματωμένοι σε άμορφη μήτρα οξειδίου του Si. Για τα υμένια των οξειδίων του Cu και του Ni μελετήθηκαν με τη χρήση της φασματοσκοπίας UV-VIS τα φαινόμενα κβαντικού περιορισμού που παρουσιάζουν αυτά. Βρέθηκε ότι σε κάθε περίπτωση εμφανίζεται μετατόπιση της ακμής απορρόφησης προς μεγαλύτερες ενέργειες, καθώς το πάχος του υμενίου μειώνεται και γίνεται συγκρίσιμο με την εξιτονική ακτίνα Bohr του αντίστοιχου υλικού. Τα υμένια SiOx βρέθηκε ότι μετά από τη διαδικασία της θερμικής τους αποσύνθεσης παρουσιάζουν φωτοφωταύγεια, η οποία προέρχεται από τις εξιτονικές επανασυνδέσεις στις κβαντικές τελείες Si που εμπεριέχονται σ’ αυτά. Από την εργασία στα πλαίσια αυτής της Διατριβής, διαπιστώνουμε ότι μπορούμε να μεταβάλλουμε τις ιδιότητες παραδοσιακών υλικών, όπως είναι για παράδειγμα τα μέταλλα, οι κλασσικοί ημιαγωγοί και τα οξείδια αυτών, όταν αυτά αναπτύσσονται υπό τη μορφή νανοδομών. Οι νανοδομές αυτές μπορεί να εμφανίζουν εξαιρετικό ενδιαφέρον για εφαρμογές σε νανοδιατάξεις με καινούργιες αλλά κι εντελώς ελεγχόμενες ιδιότητες. / The objective of this Thesis is the growth and the characterization of high tech materials which can be possible candidates for future applications in nanodevices. In the framework of the Thesis, we were mainly focused on the production and the study of magnetic and semiconducting thin films, which are based on oxides of metals and of conventional semiconductors. The magnetic and optical characterizations reveal that these materials, in the form of thin films exhibit new properties with exceptionally large technological interest. In more detail, magnetic Ni/NiO multilayers, semiconducting Cu2O, CuO and NiO thin films, as well as insulating amorphous SiOx thin films with or without embedded Si quantum dots, were produced. The magnetic and/or optical properties of each of the aforementioned thin film categories were studied and their impact on possible future applications was examined. The Ni/NiO multilayers were produced on various substrates with the aid of a single magnetron sputtering head and the natural oxidation process. The produced multilayers were of excellent layering and interface quality. An extended study of both the magnetization and the anisotropy as a function of the temperature and the varying Ni layer thickness was performed. It is found from the magnetic investigations, that the multilayers with thin Ni layers exhibit a trend for perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, which is attributed to the considerable positive surface anisotropy of the Ni/NiO interfaces. The semiconducting copper and nickel oxide thin films were produced via the oxidation of the corresponding metallic films. The amorphous SiOx films were fabricated via the reactive sputtering method. Part of the as deposited films was fully oxidized at 950 oC under the ambient air environment, whereas another part was thermally decomposed under vacuum conditions at 1000 oC. Electron microscopy investigations reveal that upon the thermal decomposition process of the films, embedded Si nanocrystals are formed in the amorphous matrix of the Si oxide. The Cu and Ni oxide films exhibited quantum confinement effects, which were studied via the UV-VIS spectroscopy. The recorded spectra reveal that the absorption edge shifts towards higher energies, as the layer thickness is reduced and becomes comparable with the excitonic Bohr radius of the material. The Si oxide thin films, after the thermal decomposition treatment are found to exhibit photoluminescence at the region between 1.3 and 1.5 eV which is originated to the excitonic recombination in the embedded Si quantum dots. Finally, it is deduced that conventional materials like metals, semiconductors and the oxides of them, can exhibit new properties when they are prepared in the form of nanostructure. These nanostructures can attract a lot of interest for possible applications in nanodevices with new but completely controllable properties.

This thesis describes supramolecular approaches to porphyrin nanorings. Cyclic porphyrin arrays resemble natural light harvesting systems, and it is of interest to probe the photophysical effects of bending the porphyrin aromatic π-system. A general overview of the synthesis and photophysical properties of porphyrins and their arrays is carried out in Chapter 1. The electronic structure of porphyrins is examined, and how conformational effects in oligomers, such as inter-porphyrin torsional angle and backbone bending influence the π-conjugation pathway. The structures of light harvesting complexes are discussed. Chapter 2 describes the design and synthesis of a complementary 12-armed template designed to coordinate linear porphyrin oligomers in the correct conformation for cyclisation to give a cyclic porphyrin dodecamer. Chapter 3 demonstrates two approaches to a cyclic porphyrin dodecamer ring. Firstly, a classical templating approach using the 12-armed template is described. The limitations of this approach in the quest for larger nanorings are discussed. Vernier templating, which utilises a mismatch in the number of binding sites between a ligand and its receptor is introduced as a general strategy to the synthesis of large nanorings. This is demonstrated by the synthesis of cyclic dodecamer from a linear porphyrin tetramer and a hexadentate template via a figure-of-eight intermediate. The general utility of the Vernier method to large nanorings is explored in Chapter 4 with steps towards the synthesis of a cyclic tetracosamer, consisting of 24 porphyrin subunits. In preliminary experiments, an improved route to the cyclic porphyrin octamer is described. Finally, the photophysical properties of the nanoring series are explored in Chapter 5 as a function of size and conformation. Femtosecond photoluminescence spectroscopy shows that even in cyclic dodecamer, exciton delocalisation over the entire porphyrin backbone occurs on a sub-picosecond timescale, and parallels are drawn with the dynamics of natural light harvesting complexes.

Microscopic beams of penetrating synchrotron radiation provide a unique tool for the analysis of material structure and deformation. This thesis describes my contributions to the development of new synchrotron X-ray micro-beam diffraction experimental techniques and data interpretation, and the use of experimental results for the validation of material deformation models. To study deeply buried material volumes in thick samples, the micro-beam Laue technique was extended to higher photon energies. Through-thickness resolution was achieved either by a wire scanning approach similar to Differential Aperture X-ray Microscopy (DAXM), or by applying tomographic reconstruction principles to grain-specific Laue pattern intensity. Both techniques gave promising first results. For reliable micro-beam Laue diffraction measurements of elastic strains in individual grains of a polycrystal, understanding of the error sources is vital. A novel simulation-based error analysis framework allowed the assessment of individual contributions to the total measurement error. This provides a rational basis for the further improvement of experimental setups. For direct comparison of experimental measurements and dislocation dynamics simulations, diffraction post-processing of dislocation models in two and three dimensions was developed. Simulated diffraction patterns of two-dimensional dislocation cell/wall type structures captured correctly some of the features observed experimentally in reciprocal space maps of a large-grained, lightly deformed aluminium alloy sample. Crystal lattice rotations computed from three-dimensional dislocation dynamics simulations of a Frank-Read source showed anisotropic orientation spread similar to that observed in micro-beam Laue experiments. For the experimental study of crystal lattice distortion, a novel technique was proposed that combines micro-beam Laue diffraction with scanning white-beam topography. Diffraction topography allows the study of lattice rotation at scales smaller than the scanning beam size. The new technique makes it possible to apply classical topography methods to deformed samples.

There is currently a need for vaccine adjuvants that are effective for eliciting Th1-type CD4 and CD8 T cell responses when formulated with protein and peptide-based subunit vaccines. Some of the most promising adjuvants in this regard are combined small molecule Toll-like receptor-7/8 agonists (TLR-7/8a). However, poor pharmacokinetic properties have precluded TLR-7/8a for use in vaccines. In this thesis, polymer carriers were used to control pharmacokinetics and to modulate activity of TLR-7/8a for use as vaccine adjuvants. Combinatorial synthesis and in vivo structure-activity studies were used to evaluate how properties of Polymer-TLR-7/8a conjugates (Poly-7/8a) influence innate immune activation in lymph nodes that drain the site of vaccine administration. The most striking finding was that particle formation by Poly-7/8a strongly enhances the magnitude and duration (>14 days) of innate immune activation in lymph nodes by restricting agonist biodistribution and promoting uptake by dendritic cells. Particle-forming Poly-7/8a optimized for activity were found to induce only local innate immune activation (not systemic) and were effective for eliciting Th1-type CD4 and CD8 T cells that mediated protection against infectious challenge. Based on the importance of particle formation for activity of Poly-7/8a, thermo-responsive Poly-7/8a were developed that exist as single water-soluble macromolecules in solution but undergo temperature-driven particle formation in vivo. In conclusion, polymer carriers of TLR-7/8a represent a versatile and effective platform for modulating innate immune activity and warrant further investigation as a class of adjuvants for vaccines.

Ferritic ODS steels show improved high temperature strength and irradiation tolerance compared with conventional ferritic steels, and are one of the key potential materials for fusion blanket structural applications. The processing of ODS steels is critical to their subsequent performance; however knowledge of the optimum processing approaches for these alloys is not complete. The microstructural evolution of ODS steels containing Y₂O₃ and other additions during manufacture has been investigated and the processing conditions optimised based on microstructural and mechanical investigations. Ferritic powders with Y₂O₃ and other additions were investigated, primarily using analysis on the micro- and nano-scale, with an emphasis on identifying the requirements for homogenization of the Y within the steel matrix. The Y₂O₃ dispersion and subsequent development of the nano-precipitates during thermal treatment was investigated using in-situ neutron diffraction. The nano-precipitates were resolved at approximately 900◦C after 1hr, with coarsening and/or re-precipitation progressively increasing at higher temperatures. A significantly increased number density of nano-precipitates (∼2x10²³m−3 to ∼7x10²³m−3) was established by hot isostatically pressing an Fe-14Cr-3W-0.2Ti0.25Y₂O₃ alloy at 950◦C compared with more traditional temperatures at 1150◦C, attributed to the increased coarsening and/or re-precipitation of the nano-precipitates at the higher temperatures. The influence of the mechanical alloy (MA)ing conditions on bulk mechanical properties was investigated using four point bend. The highest fracture toughness of ∼55MN/m^3/2 and ultimate strength of ∼1450MPa was achieved under conditions that minimised the mechanical alloying time and increased the average final size of the powders. An Fe-14Cr-3W-0.2Ti-0.25Y₂O₃ (wt%) ODS alloy manufactured under optimised conditions showed a bi-modal grain structure size distribution and had a comparatively high yield strength of >1200MPa at 20◦C and >330MPa at 700◦C. The grain structure and high yield strength were attributed to the random distribution of 25nm radius of gyration (R_g) Y, Ti and O rich nano-precipitates randomly dispersed throughout the alloy. Long term thermal ageing (750hr at 1000◦C) reduced the room temperature yield strength and increased the proportion of larger grains in the bi-modal distribution, but high temperature yield strength was remarkably stable.

Since current prosthetic heart valve replacements are costly, cause medical complications, and lack the ability to regenerate, tissue-engineered heart valves are an attractive alternative. These could provide an unlimited supply of immunological-tolerated biological substitutes, which respond to patients' physiological condition and grow with them. Since collagen is a major extra cellular matrix component of the heart valve, it is ideal material for constructing scaffolds. Collagen sources have been shown to influence the manufacturing of collagen scaffolds, and two commercial sources of collagen were obtained from Sigma Aldrich and Devro PLC for comparison. Consistencies between the collagens were shown in the primary and secondary structures of the collagen, while inconsistencies were shown at the tertiary level, when a higher level of natural crosslinking in the Sigma collagen and longer polymer chains in the Devro collagen were observed. These variations were reduced and the consistency increased by introducing crosslinking via dehydrothermal treatment (DHT). Collagen scaffolds produced via freeze-drying (FD) and critical point-drying with cross-linking via DHT or 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide /N-hydroxysuccinimide (EDC/NHS) were investigated. All the scaffolds were compatible with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) according to the proliferation of the cells and their ability to produce ECM, without differentiating between osteogenic, chondrogenic or endothelial lineages. The FD EDC/NHS scaffold demonstrated the most suitable physical property of all. This result illustrates that FD EDC/NHS crosslinking is the most suitable scaffold investigated as a start for heart valve tissue engineering. To prepare a scaffold with a controlled local, spatial and temporal delivery of growth factor, a composite scaffold comprising poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres was developed. This composite scaffold demonstrated the same compatibility to the MSCs as untreated scaffold. However, the PLGA microspheres showed an increase in the deterioration rate of Young's modulus because of the detachment of the microspheres from the scaffold via cellular degradation.

Electrochemistry is the science of electron transfer. The subject is of great importance and appeal because detailed information can be obtained using relatively simple experimental techniques. In general, the raw data is sufficiently complicated to preclude direct interpretation, yet is readily rationalised using numerical procedures. Computational analysis is therefore central to electrochemistry and is the main topic of this thesis. Chapters 1 and 2 provide an introductory account to electrochemistry and numerical analysis respectively. Chapter 1 explains the origin of the potential difference and describes its relevance to the thermodynamic and kinetic properties of a redox process. Voltammetry is introduced as an experimental means of studying electrode dynamics. Chapter 2 explains the numerical methods used in later chapters. Chapter 3 presents a review of the use of nanoparticles in electrochemistry. Chapter 4 presents the simulation of a random array of spherical nanoparticles. Conclusions obtained theoretically are experimentally confirmed using the Cr³⁺/Cr²⁺ redox couple on a random array of silver nanoparticles. Chapter 5 presents an investigation into the concentration of supporting electrolyte required to make a voltammetric experiment quantitatively diffusional. This study looks at a wide range of experimental conditions. Chapter 6 presents an investigation into the deliberate addition of insufficient supporting electrolyte to an electrochemical experiment. It is shown that this technique can be used to fully study a stepwise two electron transfer. Conclusions obtained theoretically are experimentally confirmed using the reduction of anthracene in acetonitrile. Chapter 7 presents a new method for simulating voltammetry at disc shaped electrodes in the presence of insufficient supporting electrolyte. It is shown that, under certain conditions, the results obtained from this complicated simulation can be quantitatively obtained by means of a much simpler ‘hemispherical approximation’. Conclusions obtained theoretically are experimentally confirmed using the hexammineruthenium ([Ru(NH₃)₆]³⁺/[Ru(NH₃)₆]²⁺) and hexachloroiridate ([IrCl₆]²⁻/[IrCl₆]³⁻) redox couples. Chapter 8 presents an investigation into the voltammetry of stepwise two electron processes using ionic liquids as solvents. It is shown that these solvents can be used to fully study a stepwise two electron transfer. Conclusions obtained theoretically are experimentally confirmed using the oxidation of N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine in the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([C₄ mim][BF₄]). The work presented in this thesis has been published as 7 scientific papers.