Unsteady three-dimensional flow phenomena have major effects on the aerodynamic performance of, and heat transfer to, gas-turbine blading. Investigation of the mechanisms associated with these phenomena requires an experimental facility that is capable of simulating a gas turbine, but at lower levels of temperature and pressure to allow conventional measurement techniques. This thesis reports on the design, development and commissioning of a new experimental facility that models these unsteady three-dimensional flow phenomena. The new facility, which consists of a 62%-size, high-pressure gas-turbine stage mounted in a transient wind tunnel, simulates the turbine design point of a full-stage turbine. The thesis describes the aerodynamic and mechanical design of the new facility, a rigorous stress analysis of the facility’s rotating system and the three-stage commissioning of the facility. The thesis concludes with an assessment of the turbine stage performance.

This project attempts to research the manufacturing cost, with an emphasis on machining, of high performance flanges for Turbine Rear Structure (TRS) applications, as well as the tradeoffs with structural performance and weight. A combination of traditional cost modelling techniques from the literature, as well as, the non-conventional manufacturing complexity index, as cost indicator are implemented. A multidisciplinary study is carried out with the aid of ANSYS Workbench in the form of computer simulated experiments to investigate tradeoffs in flanges. It is concluded that multidisciplinary studies of cost, performance and weight lacked model robustness to draw sound conclusions about flange design. However, the manufacturing complexity index after partial validation with experienced engineers shows promising results, and could be a way forward to estimate final machining operation cost for flanges in the future. / Syftet för detta projekt är att undersöka tillverkningskostnaden, med tonvikt på bearbetning av högpresterande flänsar för turbinapplikationer (TRS), samt dess relation till strukturella prestanda och vikt. Traditionella kostnadsmodelleringstekniker kombineras med det ickekonventionella tillverkningskomplexitetsindexet och används som kostnadsindikator. En tvärvetenskaplig studie genomförs med hjälp av ANSYS Workbench i form av dator simulerade experiment för att undersöka flänsavvägningar. En slutsats av studien är att multidisciplinära modeller av kostnad, prestanda och vikt saknade robusthet för att kunna dra djupgående slutsatser om prestandan för en flänsdesign. Tillverkningskomplexitetsindexet visar dock, efter partiell validering med erfarna ingenjörer, lovande resultat och kan vara framgångsrikt ett sätt att uppskatta den slutliga bearbetningskostnaden för flänsar.

This thesis presents a joint computational and experimental investigation into the heat transfer to unshrouded turbine blade tips suitable for use in high bypass ratio, large civil aviation turbofan engines. Both the heat transfer to the blade tip and the over-tip leakage flow over the blade tip are characterised, as each has a profound influence on overall engine efficiency. The study is divided into two sections; in the first, computational simulations of a very large scale, low speed linear cascade with a flat blade tip were conducted. These simulations were validated against experimental data collected by Palafox (2006). A thorough assessment of turbulence models and minimum meshing requirements was performed. The standard k-ω and standard k-ϵ turbulence models significantly overpredicted the turbulence levels within the tip gap. The other models were very similar in performance; the SST k-ω and realisable k-ϵ models were found to be the most suitable for the flow environment. The second section documents the development and testing of a novel hybrid blade tip design, the squealet tip, which seeks to combine the known benefits of winglet and double squealer tips. The development of the external geometry was performed primarily through engine-representative CFD simulations at a range of tip gaps from 0.45% to 1.34% blade chord. The squealet tip was found to have a similar aerodynamic sensitivity to tip clearance as a baseline double squealer tip, with a tip gap efficiency exchange rate of 2.03, although this was 18% greater than the alternative winglet tip. The squealet tip displayed higher predicted stage efficiency than the winglet tip over the majority of the range of tip clearances investigated, however. The overall heat load was reduced by 14% compared with the winglet tip but increased by 28% over the double squealer tip, primarily due to the change in wetted surface area. The predicted local heat transfer coefficients were similar across all geometries. A realistic internal cooling plenum and an array of blade tip cooling holes were subsequently added to the squealet tip geometry and the cooling configuration refined by the selective sealing of cooling holes. Film cooling performance was largely assessed by the predicted adiabatic wall temperature distributions. A viable cooling scheme which reduced the cooling air requirement by 38% was achieved, compared to the initial case which had all cooling holes open. This was associated with just a 7% increase in blade tip heat flux and no penalty in peak temperature on the blade tip. Film cooling air ejected from holes on the blade suction side was swept away from the blade tip region, making the squealet rim at the crown of the blade particularly challenging to cool. It was demonstrated that this region could be cooled effectively by ballistic cooling from holes located on the blade tip cavity floor, although this was expensive in terms of the mass flow rate of cooling air required. The computational results were reinforced with experimental data collected in a transonic linear cascade. Downstream aerodynamic loss measurements were taken for a linearised version of the squealet tip design without cooling at nominal tip gaps of 0.45%, 0.89% and 1.34% blade chord, which was compared to similar data taken by O’Dowd (2010) for flat and winglet tips. The squealet was seen to have a similar aerodynamic loss to the flat tip and a reduced loss compared with the winglet tip. Full surface heat transfer measurements were taken for the uncooled squealet tip, at tip gaps of 0.89% and 1.34% blade chord, and for two configurations of the cooled squealet tip, at a tip clearance of 0.89% blade chord. The qualitative similarity between the measured heat transfer distributions and the those predicted by the engine-representative CFD simulations was good. A CFD simulation of the uncooled linear cascade environment at the 1.34% blade chord tip clearance was performed using a single blade with translationally periodic boundary conditions. The predicted size of the over-tip leakage vortex was smaller than had been measured, resulting in a large underprediction in the magnitude of the downstream area-averaged aerodynamic loss. The magnitudes of the predicted blade tip Nusselt number distribution were similar to those produced by the engine-representative CFD simulations and lower than that measured experimentally. Differences in the shape of the Nusselt number distribution were observed in the vicinity of regions of separated and reattaching flow, but other salient features were replicated in the computational data. The squealet tip has been shown to be a promising, viable unshrouded blade tip design with an aerodynamic performance similar to the double squealer tip but is more amenable to film cooling. It is significantly lighter than a winglet tip and incurs a reduced thermal load. The squealet tip design can now be developed into a blade tip geometry for use in real engines to provide an alternative to shrouded turbine blades and current unshrouded blade tip designs. A commercial CFD solver, Fluent 6.3, was shown to capture blade tip heat transfer and over-tip leakage flow sufficiently well to be a useful design guide. However, the sensitivity of the flow structure (and hence, heat transfer) in the forward part of the blade tip cavity suggests that physical testing cannot be eliminated from the design process entirely.

The work presented in this thesis aims to provide various tools to be used during design process to make maximum use of the increasing availability of accurate engine blade measurement data for high fidelity fluid mechanic simulations at a reasonable computational expense. A new method for uncertainty propagation for geometric error has been proposed for fluid mechanics codes using adjoint error correction. Inexpensive Monte Carlo (IMC) method targets small uncertainties and provides complete probability distribution for the objective function at a significantly reduced computational cost. A brief literature survey of the existing methods is followed by the formulation of IMC. An example algebraic model is used to demonstrate the IMC method. The IMC method is extended to fluid mechanic applications using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) for reduced order modelling. Implementation details for the IMC method are discussed using an example airfoil code. Finally, the IMC method has been implemented and validated for an industrial fluid mechanic code HYDRA. A consistent methodology has been developed for the automatic generation of the linear and adjoint codes by selective use of automatic differentiation (AD) technique. The method has the advantage of keeping the linear and the adjoint codes in-sync with the changes in the underlying nonlinear fluid mechanic solver. The use of various consistency checks have been demonstrated to ease the development and maintenance process of the linear and the adjoint codes. The use of AD has been extended for the calculation of the complete Hessian using forward-on-forward approach. The complete mathematical formulation for Hessian calculation using the linear and the adjoint solutions has been outlined for fluid mechanic solvers. An efficient implementation for the Hessian calculation is demonstrated using the airfoil code. A new application of the Independent Component Analysis (ICA) is proposed for manufacturing uncertainty source identification. The mathematical formulation is outlined followed by an example application of ICA for artificially generated uncertainty for the NACA0012 airfoil.

The principal aims of this research have been the development of photogrammetric techniques for the measurement of anisotropic deformation in uniaxially loaded cylindrical specimens. This has been achieved through the use of calibrated cameras and the application of edge detection and multiple view geometry. The techniques have been demonstrated at quasi-static strain rates, 10^-3 s^-1, using a screw-driven loading device and high strain rates, 10^3 s^-1, using Split Hopkinson Bars. The materials that have been measured using the technique are nearlyisotropic steel, anisotropic cross-rolled Ti-6Al-4V and anisotropic clock-rolled commercially pure Zr. These techniques allow the surface shapes of specimens that deform elliptically to be completely tracked and measured in situ during loading. This has allowed the measurement of properties that could not have been recorded before, including true direct stress and the ratio of transverse strains in principal material directions, at quasi-static and elevated strain rates, in tension and compression. The techniques have been validated by measuring elliptical prisms of various aspect ratios and independently measuring interrupted specimens using a coordinate measurement machine. A secondary aim of this research has been to improve the characterisation of the anisotropic mechanical properties of cross-rolled Ti-6Al-4V using the techniques developed. In particular, the uniaxial yield stresses, hardening properties and the associated anisotropic deformation behaviour along the principal material directions, have all been recorded in detail not seen before. Significant findings include: higher yield stresses in-plane than in the through-thickness direction in both tension and compression, and the near transverse-isotropy of the through-thickness direction for loading conditions other than quasi-static tension, where significant anisotropy was observed.

[ES] En un presente marcado por la continua lucha contra la contaminación y el cambio climático, la investigación en mejoras tecnológicas que permitan una transición aceptable para la sociedad hacia un futuro más ecológico ocupa un papel fundamental. En concreto, la aviación es un foco constante de innovación, ya que es considerada una función indispensable en una sociedad tan globalizada como la actual, pero con unos niveles de contaminación preocupantes. En este aspecto, el desarrollo de motores con altas eficiencias es un paso clave para la transición medioambiental. Sin embargo, estas alternativas presentan un reto tecnológico en cuanto a su gestión térmica basado, principalmente, en la necesidad de aumentar la refrigeración. En este contexto e impulsada por el proyecto "Aerodynamic upgrade of Surface Air Cooled Oil Cooler (SACOC)" de Clean Sky 2, esta tesis doctoral se centra en el estudio experimental de geometrías de intercambiadores de calor de superficie para la refrigeración del aceite motor mediante el uso del aire del flujo secundario del turbofan. Actualmente, existen una serie de limitaciones en cuanto a las capacidades para llevar a cabo un análisis y diseño detallado de este tipo de intercambiadores de calor debido a la falta de instalaciones que permitan un correcta, completa y robusta caracterización experimental. Las principales fuentes de datos se basan en cálculos numéricos validados a partir de extrapolaciones en condiciones de cuestionable aplicabilidad. A lo largo de la tesis se presentan los resultados obtenidos tras una detallada caracterización de cuatro diferentes geometrías de intercambiadores de calor empleando tanto técnicas intrusivas como ópticas. Se utiliza un banco de flujo capaz de generar una corriente de aire típica alrededor de los intercambiadores, mientras que un sistema de acondicionamiento de aceite controla el punto de operación por el lado caliente. Para recrear de manera más realista las condiciones de funcionamiento, se presenta una metodología para generar de manera automática pantallas de distorsión que pueden reproducir una distribución bidimensional de velocidades objetivo mediante la manufactura aditiva de paneles de porosidad variable. Este modelo, analizado mediante CFD y validado experimentalmente, se utiliza para reproducir el perfil de velocidades típico presente en torno al intercambiador en una circunstancia real de operación. Tras definir métricas relevantes que permitan analizar el comportamiento de las distintas geometrías, se llega a la conclusión de que los problemas aerodinámico y térmico están altamente acoplados en estos dispositivos, demostrando la necesidad de un cuidadoso diseño para mejorar las actuaciones del intercambiador. Los resultados muestran que puede llegar a obtenerse una mejora de más de un 12% en la caída de presión y casi un 20% en el intercambio de calor. Además, se ha confirmado el impacto del uso de la pantalla de distorsión, con variaciones del orden de 10% en ambas variables. Los resultados también muestran que es posible realizar una caracterización preliminar de manera fiable con un modelo impreso en 3D, en cuanto campos de velocidades, pérdidas de presión y frecuencias propias corregidas. Con el análisis llevado a cabo en esta tesis, se puede concluir que es fundamental tener una instalación experimental que reproduzca las condiciones de funcionamiento reales de un motor para realizar estudios relevantes de intercambiadores de calor. Además, es necesario el uso de métricas adecuadas junto con el desarrollo de una metodología exhaustiva, fiable y robusta. Los resultados y metodología presentados en en esta investigación pueden llegar a tener un impacto importante tanto a nivel académico como industrial, ya que abren la puerta a desarrollar sistemas de gestión térmica más eficiente en unas etapas de diseño preliminares que son más asequibles económicamente, consumen menos tiempo y tienen mayor flexibilidad para introducir modificaciones. / [CAT] En un present marcat per la lluita contínua contra la contaminació i el canvi climàtic, la recerca en millores tecnològiques que permetin una transició acceptable per a la societat cap a un futur més ecològic ocupa un paper fonamental. En concret, l'aviació és un focus constant d'innovació, ja que és considerada una funció indispensable en una societat tan globalitzada com l'actual però amb uns nivells de contaminació preocupants. En aquest aspecte, el desenvolupament de motors amb altes eficiències és un pas clau per a la transició mediambiental. Tot i això, aquestes alternatives presenten un repte tecnològic quant a la seva gestió tèrmica basat, principalment, en la necessitat d'augmentar la refrigeració. En aquest context i impulsada pel projecte "Aerodynamic upgrade of Surface Air Cooled Oil Cooler (SACOC)" de Clean Sky 2, aquesta tesi doctoral se centra en l'estudi experimental de geometries d'intercanviadors de calor de superfície per a la refrigeració de l'oli motor mitjançant l'ús de l'aire del flux secundari del turbofan. Actualment, hi ha una sèrie de limitacions quant a les capacitats per dur a terme una anàlisi i disseny detallat d'aquest tipus d'intercanviadors de calor a causa de la manca d'instal·lacions que permetin una caracterització experimental correcta, completa i robusta. Les fonts de dades principals es basen en càlculs numèrics validats a partir d'extrapolacions en condicions de qüestionable aplicabilitat. Al llarg de la tesi es presenten els resultats obtinguts després d'una detallada caracterització de quatre geometries diferents d'intercanviadors de calor emprant tant tècniques intrusives com òptiques. Sutilitza un banc de flux capaç de generar un corrent daire típic al voltant dels intercanviadors, mentre que un sistema de condicionament doli controla el punt doperació pel costat calent. Per recrear de manera més realista les condicions de funcionament, es presenta una metodologia per generar de manera automàtica pantalles de distorsió que poden reproduir una distribució bidimensional de velocitats objectiu mitjançant la manufactura additiva de panells de porositat variable. Aquest model, analitzat mitjançant CFD i validat experimentalment, sutilitza per reproduir el perfil de velocitats típic present al voltant de lintercanviador en una circumstància real doperació. Després de definir mètriques rellevants que permetin analitzar el comportament de les diferents geometries, s'arriba a la conclusió que els problemes aerodinàmic i tèrmic estan altament acoblats en aquests dispositius, demostrant la necessitat d'un disseny acurat per millorar les actuacions de l'intercanviador. Els resultats mostren que es pot arribar a obtenir una millora de més d'un 12% a la caiguda de pressió i gairebé un 20% a l'intercanvi de calor. A més, s'ha confirmat l'impacte de l'ús de la pantalla de distorsió, amb variacions de l'ordre del 10% a les dues variables. Els resultats també mostren que és possible fer una caracterització preliminar de manera fiable amb un model imprès en 3D, en tant que camps de velocitats, pèrdues de pressió i freqüències pròpies corregides. Amb l'anàlisi duta a terme en aquesta tesi, es pot concloure que és fonamental tenir una instal·lació experimental que reprodueixi les condicions de funcionament reals d'un motor per fer estudis rellevants d'intercanviadors de calor. A més, cal fer servir mètriques adequades juntament amb el desenvolupament d'una metodologia exhaustiva, fiable i robusta. Els resultats i metodologia presentats en aquesta investigació poden arribar a tenir un impacte important tant a nivell acadèmic com industrial, ja que obren la porta a desenvolupar sistemes de gestió tèrmica més eficient en unes etapes de disseny preliminars que són més assequibles econòmicament, consumeixen menys temps i tenen més flexibilitat per introduir modificacions. / [EN] In a present marked by the continuous fight against pollution and climate change, research into technological improvements that allow an acceptable transition for society towards a greener future occupies a fundamental role. Specifically, aviation is a constant focus of innovation, since it is considered an essential function in a society as globalized as today's, but with worrying levels of pollution. In this regard, the development of motors with high efficiencies is a key step for the environmental transition. However, these alternatives present a technological challenge in terms of their thermal management, based mainly on the need to increase cooling. In this context and promoted by the Clean Sky 2 "Aerodynamic upgrade of Surface Air Cooled Oil Cooler (SACOC)" project, this doctoral thesis focuses on the experimental study of surface heat exchanger geometries for engine oil cooling using the use of secondary flow air from the turbofan. Currently, there are a number of limitations regarding the capacity to carry out a detailed analysis and design of this type of heat exchanger due to the lack of facilities that allow a correct, complete and robust experimental characterization. The main data sources are based on numerical calculations validated from extrapolations under conditions of questionable applicability. The thesis presents results after a detailed characterization of four different geometries of heat exchangers using both intrusive and optical techniques. A flow bench capable of generating a typical air current around the exchangers is used, while an oil conditioning system controls the point of operation on the hot side. To more realistically recreate operating conditions, a methodology is presented to automatically generate distortion screens that can reproduce a two-dimensional distribution of target velocities through additive manufacturing of variable porosity panels. This model, analyzed by means of CFD and validated experimentally, is used to reproduce the typical speed profile present around the exchanger in a real operating circumstance. After defining relevant metrics that allow analyzing the behaviour of the different geometries, it is concluded that aerodynamic and thermal problems are highly coupled in these devices, demonstrating the need for careful design to improve the exchanger's performance. The results show that an improvement of more than 12% in pressure drop and almost 20% in heat exchange can be obtained. In addition, the impact of using the distortion screen has been confirmed, with variations of the order of 10% in both variables. The results also show that it is possible to carry out a preliminary characterization in a reliable way with a 3D printed model, in terms of velocity fields, pressure losses and corrected eigenfrequencies. With the analysis carried out in this thesis, it can be concluded that it is essential to have an experimental installation that reproduces the real operating conditions of an engine to carry out relevant studies of heat exchangers. In addition, the use of appropriate metrics is necessary together with the development of a comprehensive, reliable and robust methodology. The results and methodology presented in this research can have a significant impact both at an academic and industrial level, since they open the door to developing more efficient thermal management systems in preliminary design stages that are more affordable, consume less time and have more flexibility to make changes. / The respondent wishes to acknowledge the financial support received through the Programa de Apoyo para la Investigación y Desarrollo (PAID) of Univer- sitat Politècnica de València under grant PAID-01-20 n◦ 21589. This project has received funding from the Clean Sky 2 Joint Undertak- ing under the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation pro- gramme under grant agreement No 831977 Aerodynamic upgrade of Sur- face Air-Cooled Oil Coolers (SACOC) / Felgueroso Rodríguez, A. (2023). Aerothermal Characterisation of Surface Heat Exchangers for Turbofans [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/195852

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