Thesis advisor: Jean M. Bartunek / Thesis advisor: Myeong-Gu Seo / My dissertation builds theory about gratitude at work. Drawing from Affective Events Theory, I suggest two different forms of gratitude: state gratitude and job gratitude. State gratitude refers to grateful moods or emotions which tend to last short term, whereas job gratitude refers to employees’ grateful attitudes particularly toward their jobs that tend to last longer. Empirically, I conducted three related studies. In the first study, I developed and validated the 7-item measure of job gratitude using a series of surveys that confirmed a satisfactory content and construct validity of the measure. Using an experience sampling procedure, in the second study I suggested and tested a theoretical model of state gratitude at work. A series of longitudinal surveys with 135 employees showed that state gratitude that is captured by a 3 week long daily survey is positively associated with in-role behaviors through the desire to reciprocate benevolence. My analyses also showed that the availability of extrinsic job rewards negatively moderates the positive impact of state gratitude on helping behaviors through the desire to reciprocate benevolence. Employees’ job dependency also negatively moderates the positive impact of state gratitude on both helping and in-role behaviors through the desire to reciprocate benevolence. The third study proposed and tested a theoretical model of job gratitude. My analyses showed that through the mechanism of intended help, job gratitude is positively associated with extra-role behaviors including helping behaviors, organizational citizenship behaviors directed to an organization, and voice behaviors. Taken together, my dissertation enriches theories in emotion literature by exploring a particular type of discrete, social, and moral emotions. My dissertation also contributes to gratitude literature outside of organizational studies, as it broadens the scope of impacts of gratitude in work contexts. Lastly, this dissertation contributes to Organizational Positive Scholarship by shedding light on the experiences of the recipients’ of prosocial behaviors. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2016. / Submitted to: Boston College. Carroll School of Management. / Discipline: Management and Organization.

Ample research has investigated the relationship between non-work and work domains finding consistent links between stressors in one and strains in the other. Additionally, there exist explanatory models of these associations such as psychological/physical sickness and related absences and loss or fear of losing personal resources. The current investigation combined variables from the spillover model and Affective Events Theory to test a new model with negative mood at its core. It hypothesized marital and financial stressors lead to negative mood at home which spills over into the work domain resulting in relatively more negative appraisals of work events. Negative mood at work is a likely outcome, which in turn causes subsequent decreases in organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) and job satisfaction and increases in counterproductive work behavior (CWB). Finally, the model proposed social support as a moderator buffering against the detriments of negative mood from home. Although structural equation modeling found the proposed model to be incorrect and to suffer from a large degree of misfit, examination of individual parameter estimates warranted the testing of two alternative models. Model 3 presented the best fit and most variance accounted for by omitting OCB and using direct paths from social support to all work variables (rather than the proposed moderating effect) and direct carryover of mood at home to mood at work. The majority of the paths tested in the model reasonably explained the data, although some variance remained unaccounted for. Results of model testing were also supported by significant correlations in the predicted direction between stressors and mood at home; mood at home and appraisals of work events; appraisals of work events and mood at work; and mood at work with job satisfaction and CWB. These results draw attention to the important role played by the individual's mood in the interplay between the work and non-work domains.

Job satisfaction is a topic that garners quite a lot of attention in the literature as researchers and practitioners alike seek to understand, predict and improve employees’ contentment with their jobs. Similarly, in the decade and a half since its introduction, affective events theory (AET, Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) is also gaining attention as it is recognized as a theoretically rigorous framework (Humphrey, 2006) and the prominent theory relating to workplace affect (Ashton-James & Ashkanasy, 2005). AET supplies a framework for investigating the relationship between work events, emotions and the resulting attitudes and behaviors – a structure which several investigations have empirically tested. The current paper reviews research conducted on job satisfaction within the AET framework and identifies areas in need of additional investigation.

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Idle time is a common phenomenon that prevents employees from performing their core job tasks, with detrimental effects on employee well-being and performance. Drawing on affective events theory, the job demands-resources model, and action regulation theory, this dissertation addresses three main questions: First, how idle time affects employee well-being and performance; second, the mechanisms behind these effects, namely appraisals and affective reactions; and third, the conditions under which idle time may be beneficial for employees. Study 1 (N = 338) showed indirect negative effects of objective idle time on employee well-being through the subjective experience of being idle. Age was negatively and boredom proneness positively associated with subjective idle time. Two experiments in Study 2 (N2a = 445, N2b = 597) demonstrated the detrimental effects of regulation problems on employee well-being and performance, mediated by objective and subjective idle time. Recovery activities buffered the detrimental effects of idle time. In Study 3, a 12-month, five-wave longitudinal study (N = 1,036), the associations of idle time with lower job satisfaction, higher turnover intentions, and higher counterproductive work behavior were mediated by higher boredom. Finally, the results of Study 4, based on the same data as Study 3, showed that the effects of idle time on employee exhaustion and engagement depended on boundary conditions, namely workload and autonomy. For high workload employees, idle time was positively associated with engagement, whereas when autonomy was high, idle time was associated with lower exhaustion and lower engagement. During idle time, relaxation was beneficial, whereas detachment was detrimental regarding employee exhaustion and engagement. Idle time is detrimental to employee well-being and performance, mediated by subjective idle time, boredom, and lack of recovery, respectively. Certain conditions, like high workload or using idle time for relaxation, can make it beneficial for employees. The results provide insights for research, particular in the areas of waiting, interruptions, recovery, and well-being.:Acknowledgments i English Abstract ii German Abstract iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables ix List of Figures x 1 General Introduction 1 2 Study 1: Effects of Idle Time on Well-Being – An Experimental Study 6 2.1 Abstract 6 2.2 Introduction 7 2.3 Idle Time as an Affective Event at Work 9 2.4 Method 11 2.4.1 Open Science 11 2.4.2 Study Design 11 2.4.3 Participants 12 2.4.4 Materials 13 2.4.5 Data Analysis 14 2.5 Results 15 2.5.1 Descriptive Statistics 15 2.5.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis 15 2.5.3 Manipulation Check 15 2.5.4 Hypothesis Tests 15 2.5.5 Exploratory Results 16 2.6 Discussion 17 2.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 17 2.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 19 2.7 Conclusion 21 2.8 Open Data and Electronic Supplementary Materials (ESM 1) 21 3 Study 2: Idle Time, Recovery, and Work Outcomes: Results of Two Experimental Studies 26 3.1 Abstract 26 3.2 Introduction 27 3.3 Idle Time at Work 29 3.3.1 Antecedents of Idle Time 29 3.3.2 The Consequences of Idle Time 30 3.3.3 The Mechanisms Underlying Effects of Idle Time 31 3.4 Study 1 33 3.4.1 Method 33 3.4.2 Results 36 3.4.3 Discussion 37 3.5 Study 2 37 3.5.1 Method 37 3.5.2 Results 40 3.5.3 Discussion 43 3.6 General Discussion 43 3.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 44 3.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 46 3.7 Conclusion 47 4 Study 3: Is it Bad Because it is Boring? Effects of Idle Time on Employee Outcomes 58 4.1 Abstract 58 4.2 Introduction 59 4.3 The Effects of Idle Time 62 4.3.1 Idle Time and Boredom 63 4.3.2 Boredom and Employee Outcomes 64 4.3.3 Idle Time and Employee Outcomes 65 4.4 Method 66 4.4.1 Participants and Procedure 66 4.4.2 Measures 68 4.4.3 Statistical Analysis 70 4.5 Results 71 4.5.1 Hypothesis Tests 71 4.5.2 Additional Analyses 73 4.6 Discussion 75 4.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 75 4.6.2 Limitations and Future Research 77 4.7 Conclusion 79 5 Study 4: Can Idle Time Serve as a Resource? A Job Demands-Resources Approach 88 5.1 Abstract 88 5.2 Introduction 89 5.3 Theoretical Background and Hypotheses Development 91 5.3.1 The Downsides of Idle Time 91 5.3.2 The Benefits of Idle Time 92 5.4 Method 94 5.4.1 Participants and Procedure 94 5.4.2 Measures 95 5.4.3 Data Analysis 97 5.5 Results 97 5.5.1 Hypothesis Tests 97 5.5.2 Additional Analyses 99 5.6 Discussion 99 5.6.1 Theoretical and Practical Implications 100 5.6.2 Limitations and Future Directions 102 5.7 Conclusion 103 6 General Discussion 109 6.1 Summary 109 6.2 Theoretical Contributions 110 6.2.1 The Consequences of Idle Time 110 6.2.2 The Mechanisms Underlying Idle Time 111 6.2.3 Recovery and Boundary Conditions 112 6.3 Practical Contributions 113 6.4 Limitations and Future Directions 114 6.4.1 Affective Events Theory 114 6.4.2 Event System Theory 115 6.4.3 Action Regulation Theory 116 6.5 Conclusion 117 References 118 Appendix I Theses I Idle Time at Work I Study 1: Effects of Idle Time on Well-Being – An Experimental Study II Study 2: Idle Time, Recovery, and Work Outcomes: Results of Two Experimental Studies II Study 3: Is it Bad Because it is Boring? Effects of Idle Time on Employee Outcomes II Study 4: Can Idle Time Serve as a Resource? A Job Demands-Resources Approach III Conclusion IV References IV Thesen VI Leerlaufzeiten bei der Arbeit VI Studie 1: Auswirkungen von Leerlaufzeiten auf das Wohlbefinden – eine Experiment VII Studie 2: Leerlaufzeit, Erholung und Arbeitsergebnisse: Ergebnisse von zwei experimentellen Studien VII Studie 3: Sind sie schlecht, weil sie langweilig sind? Auswirkungen von Leerlaufzeiten auf Beschäftigte VII Studie 4: Kann Leerlaufzeit als Ressource dienen? Ein Arbeitsanforderungen-Ressourcen-Ansatz VIII Schlussfolgerungen IX Literaturverzeichnis IX Curriculum Vitae XI Publication List XII Selbstständigkeitserklärung XIV Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 1 XV Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 2 XVI Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 3 XVII Nachweise über die Anteile der Co-Autorschaft: Studie 4 XVIII

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Affective Events Theory (AET) of Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) provides a theoretical basis for explaining the antecedents and consequences of affective states at work. In this study, an extended model based on the AET framework was tested for examining the relationships between work events, affective dispositions, affective states and reactions, and the work attitudes and behaviors of the employees. Work events were assessed comprehensively using an affective work events inventory developed as part of the study. A tripartite affect structure (pleasure, calmness, and energy) was adopted for mapping the affective states of the employees at work. Core self- and external-evaluations constructs were used as the dispositional antecedents of affective experiences. Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB), and turnover intentions were examined as the work attitudes and behaviors. Findings of the study provided evidence for the validity of the AET model. Both positive and negative work events were significantly related to the affective experiences of the employees, negative events having stronger influences. The affective dispositions of core self- and external-evaluations also contributed to the prediction of affective experiences. However, these affective dispositions did not have any moderating influences on the relationship between work events and affective experiences at work. Affective experiences were significantly related with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and OCB. Exploratory analyses revealed that the major themes intersecting the critical work events and event categories were organizational justice, and coworker or supervisory support. The implications of the study for theory, practice, and future research are discussed.

The present study aimed to explore both situational (Emotional Display Rules and Affective Events) and dispositional antecedents (Four of Big Five personality dimensions / Extraversion, Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Agreeableness) of emotional labor. Potential interaction effects of situational and dispositional variables on emotional labor / and long-term consequences of the construct were also examined. Data were collected from table servers working in caf&eacute / s, restaurants, and hotels in Ankara, Istanbul, Kusadasi, (Aydin) and Antalya. The study was performed in three stages. In the first stage, diary study was conducted and Affective Events Scale was created for the service work. In the second stage, psychometric properties of the new scale were pilot tested. In the main study, reliabilities of the scales, hypotheses and potential moderation effects were tested with a total sample of 254 employees. Results revealed that emotional display rules were a significant predictor of both surface and deep acting. Positive events positively predicted emotional labor. Among dispositional antecedents, agreeableness was the only dimension that predicted surface acting. Deep acting was predicted by all of the personality dimensions utilized in the study, especially by agreeableness. On the other hand,conscientiousness had a marginally significant moderation effect on the relationship between emotional display rules and surface acting. With respect to consequences of emotional labor, both surface acting and deep acting positively predicted personal accomplishment. Deep acting was also positively related to job satisfaction, and negatively related to turnover intentions. Findings discussed and practical implications, limitations, and directions for future research were presented.

Previous research on workplace bullying primarily focuses on two main actors – the bully and the victim – while neglecting a third actor: the bystander of the bullying. The prevalence of workplace bullying is increasing across organizations, resulting in more employees becoming subjected to the effects of workplace bullying. Furthermore, witnessing coworker-on-coworker bullying is likely to influence the relationships that the bystander has with the two coworkers involved in the bullying episode. Two areas are proposed to investigate their effect on the coworker bystander: coworker interpersonal justice and personal identification with coworkers. Coworker interpersonal justice involves the perceived fairness between coworkers, while personal identification refers to how these bystanders identify with the specific actors of the bullying event. In addition to work-related outcomes, bystanders are affected at a personal level. That is, being exposed to bullying situations causes these bystanders to alter their anxiety levels and their core affect, with core affect being a precursor to moods and emotions. In addition to the aforementioned outcomes of witnessing a coworker bullying incident, there are also contextual aspects which may influence these relationships. Personal-level factors, such as a bystander's empathy and sense of coherence (i.e., coping mechanisms), may influence the effect of witnessing a coworker being bullied. Similarly, the gender of the victim in relation to the gender of the bystander may also play a role. Using affective events theory, I investigate how witnessing coworker bullying in the workplace effects bystanders. This research employs a 2 x 2 experimental design with multi-wave data collection and an in-person lab session to test the proposed hypotheses. AET is operationalized by creating a fictional coworker bullying situation in which observers are either exposed to the bullying situation or not. This research offers several contributions to the management literature as well as to practitioners. First, it extends current workplace bullying literature to incorporate the effect of peer-on-peer bullying, as well as investigating the influence of bystander and victim gender. The second contribution is the creation and testing of scales for coworker interpersonal justice, personal identification with coworkers, and observation of coworker bullying. The third contribution involves developing a more thorough understanding of the outcomes of coworker bullying on bystanders by employing an experimental approach. Fruitful areas of future research regarding coworker bullying, coworker interpersonal justice, and personal identification are discussed.