Climate change and anthropogenic activities threaten our global food security. One area of research that may help combat a future food crisis is the utilization of the genetic diversity available in wild plants. Crop wild relatives (CWR) are one such resource. They are the wild taxa most closely related to crops and from which diverse traits could be transferred to the crop. This project uses Norway as an example, to contribute towards methodologies to identify those CWR populations that are most important for conservation and use. This involves the creation of a priority list of CWR for Norway, in situ and ex situ diversity analysis of CWR populations, gap analysis and ecogeographic land characterization methodologies, predictive climate change analysis for CWR distributions and genetic diversity studies of taxa using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs). Comprehensive in situ and ex situ national recommendations for the conservation of CWR in Norway are detailed. These include the incorporation of management plans for CWR populations within the Færder national park in Norway, the first instance of such conservation activities in Scandinavia. The scientific methods used and developed will help Norway meet its international obligations for conservation and use of genetic diversity of CWR and will contribute to the regional and global efforts to systematically conserve and utilize the diversity found in CWR.

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is a well-established relative efficiency measurement technique, which has been widely applied to evaluate the technical efficiency of agricultural units in different countries by focusing on different aspects of agricultural production. This research deals with the evaluation of efficiency through DEA in non-homogeneous agricultural production, where units produce a wide range of different outputs. The objectives are threefold. Firstly, we propose a novel methodological approach of integrating the production trade-offs concept of DEA into non-homogeneous agricultural efficiency evaluation to prevent the overstatement of the efficiency of specialist farms and overcome the issue of insufficient discrimination due to large number of outputs in the models. Secondly, we aim to integrate this methodological perspective to the theory of elasticity measurement on DEA frontiers. The efficient frontiers of DEA are not defined in functional forms as in the classical economic theory, therefore obtaining elasticity measures on them require different considerations. We introduce the production trade-offs to the elasticity measurement and derive the necessary models to calculate the elasticities of response in the presence of production trade-offs. As a third objective, before moving to the introduction of the trade-offs in elasticity measurement, for theoretical completeness, we first consider the elasticity measurement on DEA frontiers of constant returns-to-scale (CRS) technologies. Our proposed methodology and all the developed elasticity theory are illustrated in a real world case of Turkish agricultural sectors. We provide extensive empirical applications covering all the proposed theory and methodology. Among the results of this research, we provide an elasticity measurement framework, which enables us to calculate elasticities of response measures in both VRS and CRS technologies, with or without production tradeoffs included. We observe that the integration of production trade-offs provide better discrimination of efficiency scores compared to the models without trade-offs included. We also investigate how changing production trade-offs affect the efficiency and elasticity measures of the evaluated units.

This thesis is a product of a case study on how innovation transfer affects women‘s participation in cowpea production in two communities in northern Ghana. The study addresses issues relating to how gender relations modify technological development, impact upon innovation transfer, dissemination and adoption among local farmers and how they affect the inclusion of women in agricultural development programmes. The context of the research is the growing awareness of the importance of involving women in agricultural development programmes. This change has occurred due to the realisation of women‘s key contribution to the agricultural sector and the need to focus technological development on both men and women. The thesis draws upon primary data produced during 12 months fieldwork in northern Ghana. This fieldwork utilised three research tools: interviews, observations and focus group discussions. Data for the interviews was collected by purposive sampling and included 65 male and female cowpea farmers, living in three villages. In addition, seven observations were undertaken in two villages and focusing on their cowpea storage practices. Finally, eight staff from The Savanna Agricultural Research Institute, The Ministry of Food and Agriculture and World Vision Ghana were also interviewed in order to gain the views and perspectives of agricultural development agencies. It is argued here that that gender equality is crucial for effective agricultural development because women are hugely involved in the agricultural sector. It is also argued that if women‘s role in ensuring effective development of cowpea production is not taken into account, the consequences will not only affect the lives of women but will also have negative consequences for the communities in which they live. Debates in technological advancement in the agricultural sector indicate that the participation of farmers in the processes of innovation development and diffusion enhances innovation adoption. The thesis argues that the development of agricultural innovations is not based on a comprehensive analysis of gender roles and as a result does not offer equal opportunities for women and men to participate and benefit. It offers further explanations on how the national agricultural development agencies are working around to actively involve both men and women in the processes of innovation development and transfer. Furthermore, the thesis argues that, notwithstanding farmers‘ interest in new and improved agricultural innovations, they are most likely to incorporate their traditional norms and values when using new or improved agricultural innovations. Thus it offers insights on how new innovations that bear similarities to older ones, are widely adopted.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the factors controlling the spread and distribution of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) in Scotland. Bracken has long been an agricultural problem and, more recently, fears have been raised about the plant's carcinogenic properties. Despite the seriousness of the problem, there has been little quantitative research into factors controlling the plant's vigour, although there are many anecdotal references on the subject. It is the aim of this thesis to; study the climatic, edaphic and biotic characteristics of the bracken zone; establish the statistical relationship between these factors and bracken vigour and to apply the findings to explain how these factors affect bracken in Scotland. The climatic, soil, vegetation and biotic characteristics of four sites in the bracken zone (west, south-west, north-east and south-east) are reviewed first. By comparisons of inter-site factors and bracken vigour at the sites, it is possible to formulate hypotheses on the factors that control bracken vigour. Correlation and regression analyses of individual factors with frond height, density and litter depth are than carried out, followed by a Stepwise Regression Analysis. Finally the findings of the two sections are summarised and the results applied to explain bracken distribution and spread in Scotland. The major conclusions of this thesis can be summarised as follows: Early season temperature strongly affects bracken vigour and largely accounts for the east-west difference in bracken vigour. Vigorous bracken in the west can withstand a greater degree of frosting than the less vigorous bracken in the east. Soil moisture stress, heavy frost and relatively intensive agriculture in the east results in a higher bracken zone (and therefore suboptimal soils and temperatures) in the east than in the west.

A fruit and vegetable-rich diet has been associated with decreased risk of developing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer in humans. These protective effects have been attributed in part, to the presence of phytochemicals in fruit and vegetables, in particular flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Some plants have been used in traditional medicine for healing, ritual ceremonies and as health tonics or food supplements. Recent interest in the health-promoting properties of Malaysian traditional vegetables has been based on claims about their uses in health and medicine. However, scientific information to support these claims is largely unexplored. The overall objectives of the present study were to investigate, determine and quantify the phytochemicals, particularly phenolic compounds, in the seven samples from five species of selected Malaysian traditional vegetables (Anacardium occidentale, Centella asiatica, Colubrina asiatica, Pluchea indica and Premna cordifolia) and to evaluate their activities in vitro, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities of extracts of these plants and individual phytochemicals. In the first section of this project, discussed in Chapter 3, Malaysian traditional vegetable extracts were screened for phenolic compounds using several complimentary techniques, namely high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and HPLC-tandem mass spectrometry and the total phenolic content determined using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay. Flavonol glycosides were predominant in most of the species, particularly A. occidentale with levels ranging from 6434 to 12420 µg/g fresh weight. Chlorogenic acids were the main components identified and quantified in C. asiatica and P. indica. The total phenolic content of the vegetables were between 100 ± 7.8 and 415 ± 20 mg/ kg gallic acid equivalent (GAE) in batch 1 but lower in batch 2 ranging from 62 ± 2.5 to 386 ± 41 mg/ kg GAE. The total phenolic content of plant extracts was positively correlated with total antioxidant capacity, determined by 2, 2’-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) assays. A. occidentale exhibited the highest total phenolic content and total antioxidant activity, whereas Colubrina asiatica, which had the lowest total phenolic content, also had low antioxidant activity in vitro. Phenolic content and antioxidant activity were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by environmental factors, as in this study, plant materials in batch 1 which was harvested in rainy season, had a higher total phenolic and antioxidant content than batch 2, which was harvested in the dry season. Based on the hypothesis that other components in addition to phenolics also contributed to the total antioxidant activities in the plants, the next objective, which was presented in Chapter 4, was to investigate the occurrence of phytochemicals such as triterpenes, carotenoids, α-tocopherol and vitamin C. The level of total triterpenes, biomarkers of C. asiatica was not significantly different between batches. The main component was madecassoside with 91 ± 4.8 µg/g fresh weight in batch 1 and 77 ± 3.4 µg/g fresh weight in batch 2. The level of carotenoids and vitamin C were low compared to previous reports. This was almost certainly due to dried samples being used in the present study, as some of the compounds would have broken down during drying process. This would have particularly affected the levels of vitamin C, which contributed only 0.9 to 5.5% to the total antioxidant activity of the plants under study. Total antioxidant activities of plant essential oils were determined using 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and the result was in agreement to the total antioxidant activities of plant extracts, which A. occidentale having the highest amount. The highest antioxidant activity exhibited by A. occidentale oil was attributed to the presence of high amounts of γ-terpinene (28%) and terpinen-4-ol (4.2%), both of which were shown to have strong radical scavenging activity. The high phenolic content, antioxidant activity and occurrence of volatile components exhibited by A. occidentale has led to the final objective of this study, which is presented in Chapter 5. This was to screen for antimicrobial activities of A. occidentale extracts and essential oil against selection of Gram-positive (Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Meticillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), coagulase negative Staphylococci (CoNS) and Lactobacillus acidophilus), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and fungi (Candida albican) using disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) methods. Investigation of the modes of action was determined using growth inhibition curve, scanning (SEM) and transmission (TEM) electron microscopy. A. occidentale was shown to have promising effects at 25 mg/ml with regard to inhibiting the growth of Gram-positive bacteria including MRSA. The essential oil and its major component, γ-terpinene at only 2.5% (v/v) inhibited the growth of all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. None of the A. occidentale extracts or oil exhibited antibacterial activities against Lactobacillus acidophilus, an important strain of bacteria found in the human gut. This indicates selective effects of A. occidentale. A. occidentale extract and oil inhibited the growth of S. aureus cells within a 2-hour incubation observed in time-kill experiments. SEM and TEM examination revealed that the oil and its component, γ-terpinene, inhibited the bacteria through bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects which damaged the bacterial cell wall. Testing the oil and γ-terpinene against epidemic-MRSA (EMRSA) biofilms indicated an anti-adhesive effect, which disrupted the bacterial colonies in the biofilms to produce more extracellular polysaccharides (EPS). The effects of A. occidentale oil were comparable with tea tree oil, a widely used topical antiseptic. All the Malaysian traditional vegetables under study are claimed to have medicinal properties and health effects. The results in the present study have provided some information on phytochemical and nutritional properties of Malaysian traditional vegetables, and as a consequence provide a sound scientific base for promoting their consumption particularly in Malaysia.

I examined the intensive farming systems of the Ziz Valley of southeastern Morocco. The valley is a 250 km long expanse watered by the Ziz River. Surrounded by arid Saharan desert, the valley houses a dense, rapidly growing, and ethnically stratified population of Arabs, Berbers, and Haratine (blacks). Irrigated farming of cereals, olives and dates, and livestock raising dominate the lives of its inhabitants. Upon the analysis of the Ziz data, I reached three major findings. First, despite the unexpected finding that Berbers actually get more out of the same amount of land than Haratine and Arabs, and the fact that the Haratine are not the most productive farmers as hypothesized in the research design of my dissertation, this study underscores the urge to reformulate the theory behind agricultural intensification to incorporate the key variable of ethnicity and its role in making land productive in the analysis of agricultural change. Thus, contrary to current theories which examine social and economic change in terms of agricultural productivity and crop complexes, my findings demonstrate that the same agrarian regimes in the ethnically heterogeneous Ziz Valley differ markedly in production and intensity between ethnic groups, and therefore provide household-level evidence that ethnicity is a key, albeit a heretofore ignored, variable in the processes of economic and social development. Second, the study of ethnicity has dwelt too much on defining what ethnicity is, erecting its boundaries, and outlining its emergence as essential elements in the structuring of social organization between and among groups. However, with the infusion of remittances from abroad the Haratine have made ethnicity a political and economic instrument through which a Haratine corporate group has emerged to resist the ethnic mode of production. Third, ethnic change in the valley, and for that matter throughout the oasis social world of Southern Morocco, could not have risen from within the communities social structures, and the only avenue for the subaltern groups to change their lot in terms of political participation and access to land was to migrate outside the valley, return home with remittances, and undo the pillars of ethnic stratification.

In this thesis, computer integration technology and human interfaces will be assessed to determine if it can help in sharing, connecting, and transferring information in Landscape Architecture. Traditional methods of integration using manual techniques need to be modified for computer applications. Existing user friendly computer integration technology was researched and an experimental demonstration based on the Landscape Architectural applications was developed. Other applications and benefit of computer integration technology in Landscape Architectural practice are discussed.

<p> Urban Agriculture (UA) is addressing problems associated with the degradation of human and environmental health. Organizations whose missions include offering programs and services which support local UA activities are essential for fostering community awareness and garnering participation. This study attempts to discover how the Savannah Urban Garden Alliance and the Forsyth Farmers Market are fostering awareness of UA in Savannah. Secondly, to identify obstacles which hinder these organizations from effectively carrying out their missions. Lastly to provide a tool box for planning purposes which will encourage the necessary involvement of municipal and institutional leadership. </p>

<p> Following the Civil War, the American government greatly expanded the opportunities available for private businessmen and investors in an effort to rapidly colonize the West. This expansion of private commerce led to the second industrial revolution in which railroads and the corporation became the symbols and tools of a rapidly modernizing nation. It was also during this period that the responsibility of food distribution was released from municipal accountability and institutions like public markets began to fade from the American urbanscape. While the proliferation of private grocers greatly aided many metropolises' rapid growth, they did little to secure a sustainable and desirable form of food distribution. During the decades before and after the turn of the century, public market campaigns began to develop in response to the widespread abandonment of municipal food distribution. </p><p> Like many western cities, Portland, Oregon matured during the second half of the nineteenth century and lacked the historical and social precedent for the construction of a public market. Between 1851 and 1914, residents of Portland and its agricultural hinterland fought for the construction of a municipally-owned public market rallying against the perceived harmful and growing influences of middlemen. As a result of their efforts, the Carroll Public Market was founded on the curbsides of Yamhill Street in downtown Portland. While success encouraged multiple expansions and an increasingly supportive consumer base, a growing commitment to modernist planning among city officials and the spread of automobile ownership determined the market to be incompatible with the commercial future of Portland.</p><p> In an effort to acknowledge and capitalize on the Carroll Public Market's community, a group of investors, incorporated as the Portland Market Company, worked with city officials between 1926 and 1934 to create the largest public market in the United States, the Portland Public Market. As the first building of the newly constructed waterfront development, many believed the massive institution would reinvigorate nearby businesses and ultimately influence the potential of the downtown business district. The Portland Public Market was decidedly distinct from the market along Yamhill and the promoters cast it as such. By utilizing the most modern technologies and promises of convenience there was little that the two organizations shared in common. In the end, the potential of the waterfront market was never fulfilled and amidst legal scandals, an ongoing struggle to meet operating costs, and the success of a rebellious Farmers Cooperative, it shut down after nine years.</p><p> This thesis discusses these two public markets during a period of changing consumer interests and the rise of modernist planning in Portland, Oregon. Ultimately, the Carroll Public Market was torn down for reasons beyond its own control despite the comfortable profit it enjoyed each year. Many city officials refused to support the institution as they increasingly supported the values of modernism and urban planning. The Portland Public Market fit perfectly with many city planners' and private investors' intents for the future. This essay seeks to offer a unique glimpse of how commercial communities form and how commercial environments evolve through the politics of food distribution, consumerism, and producer-to-consumer relationships.</p>

<p> Hybrid poplars are a short rotation woody crop grown for a variety of target markets including paper pulp, saw timber, and biofuels in the Pacific Northwest. Development of pest control strategies within hybrid poplar plantations over the last several decades has focused on controlling foliar feeding herbivores and wood boring pests, and has overlooked the epigeal arthropod community. Understanding this unstudied suite of organisms would allow pest managers to better evaluate the impact their management strategies have on the poplar agroecosystem. Qualitative surveys of the arthropod communities in hybrid poplar plantations and nearby native habitats demonstrated that a greater arthropod diversity persists in the surrounding native areas. Additionally, the poplar plantation's epigeal arthropod community was composed of species found within sampled native areas. </p><p> Historically poplar research focused on protecting trees in the years following establishment through harvest from emerging pests while discounting cutting mortality by replanting areas of failure. Describing unrooted cutting transplant morality and distribution within newly established planting block could provide a risk assessment tool that growers could utilize to evaluate their potential crop loss. It was determined through the examination of damaged cuttings that several pests were responsible for diminishing establishment success. Identification of these risks led to the development of a management strategy to reduce mortality in newly planted areas. Soaking cuttings in imidacloprid for 48 hrs provided superior herbivore protection for unrooted cuttings until root formation allowed for uptake from chemigation treatments. </p><p> An additional study was motivated by the increased concern in growing `clear wood' as poplar has migrated from pulp to saw timber. The accompanying renewed interest in reducing insect galleries in mature trees led to the exploration of deploying a mass trapping, or trap out, effort to reduce populations of <i> Prionoxystus robiniae</i> (Lepidoptera Cossidae) in specific areas of a hybrid poplar plantation. We show that a trap out effort of roughly 5 pheromone-baited traps/ha decimated <i>P. robiniae</i> populations in treated areas throughout the trap out effort and three years post application.</p>