The current environmental movement calls for a re-evaluation of many economic-ecologic relationships. The objective of this study is to identify industrial sectors and final demands most responsible for particular types of residual discharge and resource use. An economic-ecologic model was constructed for the Canadian economy from the Statistics Canada I-O as modified by Thomassin et al. (1992). This modified version with its 12 agricultural sectors and 16 food processing sectors is best suited for agricultural policy analysis. The model estimates national erosion, pesticide and fertilizer use as well as air and water pollutants, solid waste, and water use associated with specified economic activities. / Two different scenarios were analyzed. In the first, the impact on both the economy and the environment from changes in the final demand for agricultural and food commodities was simulated. Each commodity's final demand was increased by $1 million and its impact compared to the other simulated results. The ten commodities studied yielded similar economic impacts, while their environmental impacts differed considerably. Changes in the demand for wheat and oilseeds had the largest environmental impacts. / In the second scenario, the effects of a $1 million increase in each final demand category were compared. This scenario focussed on markets rather than products. The construction, exports and personal expenditures categories were the greatest generator of wastes and the largest user of free resources. The exports category yielded twice as much erosion than personal expenditures and twenty times more than the next highest value (construction).

Processes of dispossession led to the deconstructing and reconstructing of new forms of citizenship through new political identities. Concepts of citizenship and identity are now re - emerging with the reconstruction of a new political order post 1994. Who farm dweller families are in the newly constructed polity, or how their identities are understood by the new state, will have bearing on what they can rightfully access as part of the programmes of redress and transformation. Making the argument that farm dwellers are neither ‘peasant’ nor ‘labour’ or ‘worker’ in the dominant theoretical sense the research sets out to contextualise the farm dwellers’ development dilemma. This research attempts to situate farm dweller families in a dynamic and his torically fraught political economy so that a more accurate consideration is given to the impact of future settlement options on their households’ economy. This study evaluates the relationship between farm dweller settlement patterns and their household f ood security. in the Amajuba District of KwaZulu - Natal, South Africa. The situation of the farm dweller families in the Amajuba district tells a story of extreme vulnerability. The vulnerability is a product of their dependent relationship on the owners of the land for permission to access these basic but critical livelihood needs. Their continued dependence on natural resources, rather than the cash economy, is also a product of this decades’ long relationship which has perpetuated levels of generational chronic poverty. The cycle of this level of poverty is clearly vicious and without directed targeted intervention might take generations to overcome, if it is ever broken. The political economic context of an aggressive global food industry fed by industrial forms of agriculture, the levels of vulnerability, dependency and lack of agency in the farm dweller household economy and the incredibly uncertain government settlement and agricultural policy environment, makes the feasibility of new rural settlemen ts with new forms of economic and social functionality almost unimaginable. What the research finds is that in presenting the farm dweller perspective a good motivation can be made for developing a specific targeted state intervention that has short, medium and long term trajectories to provide farm dwellers with redress, and economic development opportunities. / Thesis (M.U.R.D.P.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

The Soviet Union occupied her southern neighbor Afghanistan on Thursday, December 27, 1979. Soon after the occupation, significant impacts were felt on agriculture and other sectors of the economy. Agriculture was affected in many ways from the integrity of irrigation systems to the cultivation of opium poppies. Agricultural extension, as the main department within the Ministry of Agriculture, was severely affected in terms of programs, organization, personnel, budget, methods, relations with farmers, and transfer of improved technologies. This study was designed to assess the impacts of the occupation and identify recommendations for the future development of the system. A survey design was used. Sixty-two Afghans with detailed knowledge about the Soviet occupation and agriculture participated in the study. The survey included 34 mostly open-ended questions, covering three areas: demographic characteristics of respondents, impacts of the occupation, and prospects for the future of the Agricultural Extension System of Afghanistan. The majority of participants were highly educated and lived in North America after departing Afghanistan. The results also showed that during the occupation many participants were assigned to passive positions or lost their jobs. The occupation affected the attitudes of the farmers, reduced the cultivation of agricultural land, destroyed the infrastructure for delivering agricultural services, altered the types of crops grown and reduced the number of people working in agriculture. Millions of landmines remain a serious threat to those who return to farming. Recommendations are made for the Government, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Higher and Vocational Education, Agricultural Extension System, Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), and International Aid Agencies. Agricultural extension rehabilitation should be given high priority to meet the emerging challenges of increasing agricultural production by adopting modern technology, generating suitable marketing channels for surplus agricultural products, providing equal development and working opportunities for Afghan women, protecting natural resources, utilizing professional returnees, and replacing poppy cultivation with regular food crops. Perceptual and structural obstacles may militate against providing proper support for agricultural development in Afghanistan. The overall reconstruction and development of the Afghan Agricultural Extension System is a prerequisite for the future development of the Afghan agriculture sector. Establishing a stable Afghan government and support from the international coalition are essential to rebuilding this important sector of the economy.

The sustained growth of small, medium and micro enterprises (SMMEs) could help to reduce poverty, income inequality and unemployment problems in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). Public and private sector institutions can identify policies and strategies to, increase the survival and growth rates of SMMEs if they have more information about the factors that constrain business performance, and the link between entrepreneurial quality and enterprise success. The owners of 44 agribusiness SMMEs in a stratified random sample of Ithala Development Finance Corporation (Ithala) clients in KZN were, therefore, surveyed during October 2003-February 2004 to identify what they perceive are constraints on business survival and growth, and how entrepreneurial quality affects business success (using loan repayment performance at Ithala as a proxy for success). Principal Component Analysis of 36 potential constraints ranked by the survey respondents identified eight dimensions of perceived constraints: A lack of access to services; funding constraints at enterprise start-up; a lack of management capacity in the enterprise; access to tender contracts; compliance costs associated with VAT and labour legislation; liquidity stress; a lack of collateral, and a lack of institutional (government and private sector) support. A lack of collateral and access to services seemed to affect the Retailer stratum relatively more, while Speculators considered lack of capital at start-up to be their major constraint. Harvester contractors and Processors seemed to be most affected by compliance costs, while Processors were especially prone to liquidity stress. Possible solutions to ease these constraints include the provision of appropriate infrastructure and training, development of innovative loan products to address cash flow and collateral issues, more transparent tendering processes, and policies to reduce the costs of compliance with legislation. An empirical logit model showed that strong energizer behaviours (current and planned business expansion and staff training) that reflect entrepreneurial quality, more business experience, and family assistance to become an entrepreneur, promote loan repayment (success), while a lack of access to electricity and training facilities increase the probability of loan default. This suggests that more focus on the personal characteristics of credit applicants and (again) the development of appropriate infrastructure and training services could help to promote the future success of agribusiness SMMEs in KZN. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

The role of agriculture in rural development is widely documented in literature. Many analysts regard agriculture, specifically small-scale agriculture, as the cornerstone for viable and sustainable economic growth. Furthermore, the agricultural sector is seen as an effective instrument for poverty reduction, particularly in rural communities of developing countries where a large amount of poor people are concentrated. Indeed, analysts now agree that developing the agricultural sector is perhaps one of the most effective ways to address high levels of poverty evident in the developing world, and call on the world leaders to commit themselves to direct more investment into this sector. Using the avocado industry in Giheta-Burundi, this dissertation argues that some emerging crops (such as avocados) present enormous opportunities to income generation for small-scale farmers with the potentiality of diversifying cash crop farming in Burundi, an area currently dominated by coffee, tea and cotton. This study further suggests that avocado farming presents the economic, market and health potentiality to contribute to a viable and sustainable rural economy in Giheta Burundi, thereby reducing levels of poverty in this area. The main research question is as follows: “To what extent does the production of avocados benefit the income and wellbeing of small-scale farming households in Giheta?” Accordingly, the main policy concern is that if avocados are playing a crucial role for income generation, wellbeing and diet of the small-scale farmers in Giheta, the avocado sector needs to be substantially supported by both the private and public sectors in order to increase the capacity of avocado production in this area and subsequently enable small-scale farmers to gain greater income from this sector. All of which will contribute significantly to reducing levels of poverty in Giheta. This dissertation is 42 266 words in length excluding references and appendices. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

Water resources are a crucial resource in a large proportion of economic activity, both in rural and urban areas and resource sharing has become an increasingly important concept to achieve equitable distribution of scarce resources which are social-ecological, socio-economic and political in their nature (Breen et al., 2003). Water scarcity and the increased demand from high value water users have decreased opportunities for increased stakeholder participation. The National Water Act of 1998 is part of environmental legislation promulgated to redress the historical inequitable access to natural resources. Previous studies (Versfeld, 2000; Schreiner and van Koppen, 2001; Armitage et al., 1999; van Wyk et al., 2006) have indicated that the current allocation mechanism of compulsory licensing, mainly in the agricultural sector, has not resulted in meaningful resource sharing or empowerment as agriculture does not seem to perform as well as other water use sectors in terms of provision of economic benefits. Within the context of striving for greater equity and empowerment (1) in resource sharing, the key issues of participatory governance of water resources in creating sustainable revenue from sharing water resources are evaluated in this study as a basis for the aim of investigating water trading as a suitable allocation mechanism to promote equitable water resource sharing. Resource sharing will “ultimately rest on negotiated trade-offs between resource users” (van Wyk et al., 2006:9) and there are therefore two considerations for achieving equity in water allocation: capacity through legislative means, and stakeholder perception of how access to resources can be beneficial, which will in turn “influence how human behaviour, and ultimately resource use patterns, evolve” (van Wyk et al., 2006:7). Traditionally, water has been allocated as a usufructuary resource in value chains, such as agriculture, forestry, mining and industry, in addition to fulfilling its function within the Reserve for ecological and basic human needs. Water thus becomes an integral part of a value chain which extends from allocation and conservation of water resources, through various production functions, culminating in the consumption and disposal functions associated with products created from use of water, in other words, a tradable economic commodity (Backeberg, 1997). The objectives which guide this research are focussed on understanding the dynamics of the water value chain and status of resource sharing, and whether water trading can promote empowerment through increased resource sharing and creation of benefits. The objectives are: I. Using value chain methods to understand the status of resource sharing in the Mhlatuze Catchment. II. Using a value chain method of analysis to identify constraints to empowerment of rural communities within the water sector, and identify how water trading as an allocation mechanism could provide potential solutions. III. Investigate the stakeholder perception of the suitability of water trading in promoting resource sharing through empowerment. Using the value chain methodology to understand the dynamics driving stakeholder participation and production functions, the resulting water sector map was used to identify flow of benefits and constraints in creating benefits from access to water. Further analysis of the value chain explored the possibility of enhancing governance through increasing subjective, objective and competency based capacity. Inductive qualitative research investigated the acceptance of water trading as an allocation mechanism which could improve empowerment in the context of resource sharing. This methodology could be replicated to investigate the potential of any resource allocation policy. Preliminary literature reviews revealed the Mhlatuze catchment as a suitable case study area as it is an over-allocated system (Versfeld, 2000; Pott et al., 2005) in which the compulsory licensing mechanism is being implemented. The majority of economic activity still takes place through commercial agriculture and industry in the middle and lower catchment, although demand for water exceeds supply within these groups of participants, whilst the majority of the population resides in the upper catchment. The sector map identified the status of the stakeholders and the extent to which they participated and interacted within the value chain. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with previously identified participants selected from each of the main groups in the value chain to determine whether there was understanding of the empowerment possibilities presented by water trading as an allocation mechanism. The findings of the sector study showed that the rural poor communities were an integral part of the water value chain, although the status of creation of benefits was limited to those who had access to additional resources to create revenue from water use. Analysis of the value chain indicated that benefits could be created from water trading without having to increase the resource base, important in the context of scarce resources. In addition, the ability of poor communities to participate in the value chain through water trading, as opposed to traditional resource hungry production functions, has the potential to create meaningful empowerment in terms of improving the confidence, opportunity and capacity of these stakeholders to participate in creating benefits. The discussions with stakeholders indicated that water trading as an allocation mechanism would more likely lead to empowerment of previously disadvantaged communities whilst not adversely affecting current value chain actors by disenfranchising them of a necessary resource as could happen through compulsory re-allocation. (1) Empowerment in this dissertation is defined as procedures and legislation which improve access to, and use of, resources in order to create beneficial outcomes for the previously disadvantaged groups in South Africa. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Migration from rural to urban areas has characterized the South African population in the last quarter of the 20th century. More recently, internal urban growth itself has contributed to the rapid growth of cities. This rapid population increase in towns and cities has resulted in a range of social and environmental problems. Food insecurity is one such problem, it is contended, that could be addressed by the more wide spread development of urban agriculture (UA). The literature review helped the researcher to understand the problems and potential of UA. For the purposes of this study , UA is defined as the growing of plants , tree crops and raising of livestock within and at peri-urban areas. It focuses specifically on the 'community' type ventures rather than that associated with individual households. UA is an effective and efficient way of converting urban waste land and underutilized resources into food products , generate income and create jobs . The literature review and the case studies underlined the importance of UA to supplement household income and address issue of food security. However, the activity has been largely overlooked by local government, policy makers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It was also realized that UA is not a widespread or common practice in the cities of South Africa although the majority of the urban populations are poor due to past apartheid policy, rapid urbanization and the relatively slow growth of the economy as a whole. Against the above background, this study focused on socio-economic analysis of vegetable production in the study area by identifying and examining the role played and potential socio-economic and environmental importance of UA in the Greater Edendale Area (GEA). The study was conducted in the GEA particularly in three vegetable gardens, namely, the African Tree Centre (ATC), the Edendale Lay Ecumenical Centre (ELEC) and the Willow Fountain Centre (WFC). Primary data were collected through using structured interviews, key informant interviews , personal observation and through a literature review and the consultation of documents and records from the organizations surveyed. Agricultural activities in general and UA in particular in the study area were limited. Production at present is also low. However, the production of vegetables and fruits and the raising of poultry do relatively well when compared to other UA activities. Very few people in the study area were practising UA because of the lack of suitable land set aside for the purpose, lack of equipment and lack of financial and technical support. The initial cost of starting community based UA was found to be high. This situation has limited the number of urban farmers. If people are able to meet the start up costs, they can provide the urban poor with fresh and affordable produce. ln addition, the lack of information and awareness, in relation to the actual and potential benefit of UA, has limited its spread in the study area. It is also possible to optimize the capacity of UA with limited inputs. High production per hectare is possible and is well suited to low-income families and it allows women, who constitute the majority of urban farmers, to participate. The young, the old and the unemployed are other potential beneficiaries. However, lack of recognition, and cultural biases (i.e, many urban managers and policy makers think that allowing UA in cities 'ruralises' them of its activities hinder the realization of the potential role of UA. Therefore, integration of UAin the plans, policies and activities of stakeholders, particularly urban planners, city administrations, NGOs, local universities, extension and credit organizations, and community based organizations (CBOs) should be a priority issue. Strategies to ensure a higher priority for UA need to be carefully articulated. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Bibliography: leaves 457-486. / xxii, 486 leaves : ill., maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geography, 1996

The Qamata Irrigation Scheme (QIS) is one of the largest irrigation schemes in South Africa. Despite substantial state investment, community members have only derived limited benefits from the scheme, leading the government efforts to revitalize the scheme. Many studies have been conducted about QIS but none of them have analyzed the effects of the QIS on the surrounding communities. This study investigated the socio-economic benefits of QIS to surrounding communities. For the purposes of this study, the units of analysis were the surrounding household members, questionnaires were used to collect data. Probabilistic sampling of random sampling method was used to select the villages; respondents’ were availability selected with sample size of 197 households. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the participants. To analyse data, descriptive statistics and multinomial logit regression model were used. The study found out that female-headed households constitute 63.45 percent compared to male-headed households at 36.55 percent. The average age of the households in the villages that are within the radius of 10km is 58 years, while it is 59 years in villages that are beyond the 10km radius. In villages within the radius of 10km, 86.08 percent of respondents are unemployed, 5.70 percent are employed at the scheme and 8.23 percent are self-employed. In villages beyond 10km, 84.62 percent of respondents are unemployed, 5.13 percent are employed at the scheme and 10.26 percent are self-employed. In both villages, 71 percent of respondents reported that that they do not get feed supply from the scheme while 29 percent of respondents reported that they get feed supply from the scheme. From the overall distribution of villages within and beyond the radius of 10km, 80 percent of respondents reported that they do not get job opportunities from the QIS while 20 percent of respondents reported that they get job opportunities from the QIS. The study shows that 53 percent of respondents from villages within the radius of 10km are low-benefitting, 33 percent of respondents are intermediate-benefitting and 14 percent of respondents are high-benefitting from the scheme, while in villages beyond the radius of 10km, 97 percent of respondents are low-benefitting, 3 percent of respondents are intermediate-benefitting and none of the respondents is high-benefitting from the scheme. Furthermore, the study, through the multinomial logit regression model, shows that gender for intermediate benefitting has a negative coefficient (-1.70) and shows a significance of 10 percent On the other hand, gender for high benefitting has a positive coefficient (2.57) and shows a significance of 1 percent. Distance from the scheme has a negative coefficient (-3.08) and shows a significance of 1 percent. Access to farmland has a positive coefficient (2.33) and shows a significance of 10 percent. The study recommends that surrounding communities should own home gardens so that they can grow fresh produce and create job opportunities. The surrounding communities are also encouraged to own more farmlands or produce their own crops so they can also learn from the skills of the scheme.

O presente trabalho refere-se a um estudo de caso que teve como finalidade avaliar a viabilidade técnica e econômica na utilização da vinhaça para a produção de energia elétrica em uma usina de álcool, localizada na região noroeste do estado do Paraná. Os critérios de tomada de decisão considerados, baseados em análise de viabilidade econômica, foram a Taxa Interna de Retorno (TIR), o Valor Presente Líquido (VPL) e o Payback descontado. Foram adotados dois cenários para análise da viabilidade econômica do projeto. O primeiro cenário considerou a possibilidade de venda da energia elétrica produzida para a Companhia Paranaense de Energia - COPEL, a partir de três operações distintas variando o tempo de funcionamento da planta de biogás e o preço de venda de energia. Já o segundo cenário, considerou a utilização da energia elétrica produzida para consumo próprio em substituição ao bagaço da cana que passaria a ser vendido. Também, para o segundo cenário, foram consideradas três operações que variam o tempo de funcionamento da planta de biogás, e o valor de venda do bagaço da cana. Ainda, foi realizada uma Análise de Sensibilidade do VPL em função da variação do preço de venda da energia elétrica (cenário 1) e do bagaço da cana (cenário 2), da quantidade vendida e dos custos fixos envolvidos. Realizou-se, também, uma Análise de Probabilidade de Risco, a partir de 1000 simulações de VPL, considerando que a variação do preço de venda da energia elétrica e do bagaço da cana apresenta uma distribuição normal em ambos os casos. Comparando-se esses indicadores econômicos e as análises realizadas, pode-se concluir que o empreendimento é viável para os dois cenários avaliados, sendo que para o cenário 2 há apenas 0,10% de probabilidade de prejuízo, para cada operação. Assim, considerando os cenários estudados e as operações realizadas em cada um deles, pode-se afirmar que a substituição do bagaço, que passaria a ser vendido, pela vinhaça na geração da energia elétrica para consumo próprio da usina, apresenta-se mais viável economicamente do que a produção de energia, a partir da vinhaça, cujo objetivo seria a venda para a COPEL. / This paper refers to a case study that aimed to assess the technical and economic feasibility of the use of stillage to produce electricity in an ethanol plant, located in the northwestern region of the state of Paraná. The criteria considered in decision making based on economic viability analysis, were Internal Rate of Return (IRR), Net Present Value (NPV) and discounted payback. Two scenarios were adopted to analyze the economic feasibility of the project. The first scenario considered the possibility of selling the electricity produced to Company Paranaense of Energy - COPEL, from three distinct operations varying the time of operation of the biogas plant and the sale price of energy. The second scenario considered the use of the energy produced for own consumption in substitution of bagasse that would be sold. Also, for the second scenario, three operations that vary the time of operation of the biogas plant and the sale value of bagasse were considered. Still, a sensitivity analysis of the NPV was performed due to the variation of the selling price of electricity (scenario 1) and sugarcane bagasse (scenario 2), the amount sold and the fixed costs involved. Also held one-Probability Risk Analysis, from 1000 simulations of NPV, whereas the variation of the selling price of electricity from sugarcane bagasse and has a normal distribution in both cases. Comparing these economic indicators and analyzes, we can conclude that the project is viable for both scenarios evaluated, and for scenario 2 there is only 0.10% probability of injury for each operation. Thus, considering the scenarios studied and the operations performed on each one, it can be stated that the substitution of bagasse, which would be sold by the vinasse in the generation of electricity for own consumption of the plant, appears more economically viable than energy production from vinasse, whose goal would be to sell to COPEL.