Les maladies allergiques ont fortement augmenté dans les pays industrialisés depuis les années qui ont suivi la 1ère guerre mondiale. Parmi les hypothèses proposées celle de l’implémentation de l’hygiène dans l’environnement urbain et ses conséquences sur l’exposition aux agents pathogènes a été bien documentée. Comparé à la vie rurale, l’environnement urbain entraine une exposition plus faible aux microbes et à leurs constituants moléculaires tels que les endotoxines et quasi nulle aux parasites intestinaux tels que les helminthes. Au contraire, l’exposition aux allergènes de l’environnement domestique est plus importante.Dans ce travail nous avons investigué certains aspects de la réponse inflammatoire induite par les endotoxines (une molécule pro-inflammatoires des bactéries Gram négatives) et immunitaire associée aux helminthes.1/ L'exposition chronique à l'endotoxine inhalée produit des effets paradoxaux :une protection contre le développement d'allergies IgE-médiées, d'une part, et une réaction inflammatoire des voies aériennes, d'autre part. Comme les régions de la déposition bronchique et alvéolaire pourraient jouer un rôle dans ce processus, nous avons évalué la réponse inflammatoire locale et systémique après exposition à de l'endotoxine par inhalation d'aérosols de particules de dimensions différentes. Les résultats montrent une relation entre la déposition au niveau pulmonaire et l’amplitude de la réponse inflammatoire systémique.2/ Les infections parasitaires ont une relation complexe avec les maladies allergiques. Ces deux pathologies se caractérisent par une réponse immunitaire de type Th2 (impliquant éosinophiles, immunoglobulines E (IgE), interleukine (IL)-4, IL-13,IL-5, …). Cependant, certaines helminthiases protègent des maladies allergiques. Dans cette seconde partie du travail, nous avons étudié la réponse immune induite par une infection chronique par ankylostomes chez l’humain et son évolution après traitement de l’infection. Nous confirmons que la réponse immune au cours de l’infection à ankylostome est caractérisée par une augmentation des cellules T régulatrices (Treg), qui contrôlent l’amplitude de la réponse immune aux helminthes mais montrons pour la première fois que ces Treg ont un phénotype naïf et fortement immuno-suppresseur. Deux semaines après traitement de l’infection on observait également une réponse inflammatoire caractérisée par une majoration de l’IL-6 mais aussi de l’IL-4, cytokine Th2 qui joue un rôle majeur dans la production d’IgE. Ces réponses conjointes (diminution des Treg et réponse inflammatoire de type Th2) pourraient constituer une base physiopathologique pouvant expliquer l’augmentation de la prévalence des sensibilisations allergiques après traitement d’une helminthiase. Nous montrons également que l’infection par helminthes s’accompagne d’une production d’IgE reconnaissant de nombreux allergènes dont les acariens de la poussière de maison, un des allergènes respiratoires les plus fréquents et fortement inducteur d’asthme. Le mécanisme expliquant la production de ces IgE spécifiques des acariens n’est pas connu. Il pourrait s’agir d’une production polyclonale, par présentation facilitée par les IgE ou par réactivité croisée avec des antigènes parasitaires. Ces IgE n’induisaient ni sensibilisation cutanée (tests allergiques cutanés positifs), ni symptomatologie clinique et n’étaient pas capables d’induire de dégranulation des mastocytes in vitro après stimulation allergénique. Par ailleurs, ces IgE spécifiques ne reconnaissaient ni les allergènes majeurs ni des déterminants carbohydrates de type N-glycan.En conclusion, notre travail de thèse met en lumière des mécanismes potentiels par lesquels l’exposition aux agents microbiens environnementaux peut moduler les réponses immunes et protègent potentiellement des maladies allergiques. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Up to now, solid organ transplantation remains the ultimate life-saving treatment for end-stage organ failure. However, transplantation could be complicated by allograft rejection wherein inflammation plays a pivotal role. In this process, inflammation secondary to ischemia/reperfusion and cell necrosis plays the role of adjuvant and enhances the antigen-specific adaptive response ultimately leading to allograft rejection. Therefore, anti-inflammatory strategies have to be developed to dampen inflammation and secondary alloreactivity. Recently, neuroimmune pathways and particularly the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway have been described to modulate inflammation in several experimental models as sepsis. The Vagus Nerve, the α7 nicotinic receptor (α7nAChR) and its agonists are specific targets to regulate the inflammatory response in several pathologies.The aim of this work is to investigate the potential protective effect of the cholinergic pathway in solid organ transplantation. In a model of renal ischemia/reperfusion injury induced by bilateral clamping of renal arteries, nicotine protects from renal dysfunction and tubular damages. This protection is associated to a reduction of inflammatory cytokines and neutrophils and is α7nAChR dependent. In a second part, we test the effect of the α7nACh receptor in a model of minor antigen mismatched skin allograft. Mice deficient for the α7nAChR reject earlier the skin allograft compared to α7nAChR +/+ mice and this is associated to higher Th1 and Th17 T cell responses. α7nAChR expressed on T cells is involved in skin allograft rejection as attested by adoptive transfer experiments in Rag H/H mice with either α7nAChR +/+ or α7nAChR H/H alloreactive T cells. The cholinergic pathway by itself or boosted by nicotinic agonists is able to modulate innate as well as acquired immune components involved in allograft rejection. Other agonists or devices used to stimulate the cholinergic pathway are actually developed in order to be more specific and to reduce toxicity. Our results are particularly relevant in human medicine as grafted organs lose their Vagus Nerve endings and their cholinergic regulatory innervation. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Background. The development of non-invasive imaging techniques has been stimulated by the shortcomings of histopathology. Currently the only valid diagnostic technique in dermatology is skin biopsy which remains a painful, invasive intervention for the patient. Moreover, this approach is not always convenient for monitoring and follow-up of a skin disease. Optical imaging technologies could solve these shortcomings as they are fast, precise, repeatable and painless. There are four established non-invasive skin imaging techniques used in daily practice: dermoscopy, high-frequency ultrasound, reflectance confocal microscopy (RCM) and conventional optical coherence tomography (C-OCT). In imaging there is a trade-off between resolution and penetration depth. The former permits the visualization of cells, if the resolution is at least 3 µm. The latter enables the recognition of patterns and structures in deeper layers of the skin if the penetration depth is deeper than 150 µm. New non-invasive techniques using infrared light sources have been developed recently. The technique used in this work is a high-definition optical coherence tomography (HD-OCT).Objectives. The overall aims of this thesis were the feasibility of HD-OCT to visualize in/ex vivo, in real time and in 3-D the cellular and structural morphology of the skin, secondly the assessment of the capability of this technology to measure in vivo and real time the cutaneous optical properties, and finally the determination of the contribution of this technique to the non-invasive near-infrared imaging technologies. Five specific objectives have been established: i) could cells be observed in their 3-D microenvironment in normal and diseased skin, ii) could we describe morphologic features of cells and structures in normal and diseased skin (m_HD-OCT), iii) could these morphologic features be quantified by optical property analysis (o_HD-OCT), iv) was it possible to perform accurate thickness measurements in normal and diseased skin, and finally v) what was the diagnostic potential of this technique?Methodology. HD-OCT uses a combination of parallel time-domain interferometry, high power tungsten lamp (with Gaussian filter, very low lateral coherence and ultra-high bandwidth (1300 nm +/- 100 nm)), and last but not least, full field illumination with real time focus tracking. A constant homogeneous resolution of 3 µm resolution in all three dimensions is obtained up to a depth of 570 µm. Hence, the system is capable of capturing real time full 3-D images. Moreover, the in vivo assessment of optical properties of the skin is only applicable to OCT when operating in focus-tracking mode, which is the case for HD-OCT. The means to obtain answers to the five specific questions were the comparison of en face HD-OCT images with RCM and HD-OCT cross-sectional images with histopathology and C-OCT. Results. At least 160 line pares were observed by imaging a high resolution phantom with HD-OCT. This suggested a 3 µm lateral resolution. The presence of cells such as keratinocytes, melanocytes, inflammatory cells, fibroblasts and melanophages in their 3-D cutaneous microenvironment in vivo as well as ex vivo has been demonstrated .A qualitative description of structures and patterns in normal and diseased skin could be performed by HD-OCT. Clear structural changes of the epidermis, dermo-epidermal junction, papillary dermis and reticular dermis related to intrinsic skin ageing could be observed. Lobulated structures, surrounded by stretched stromal fibers and arborizing vessels, could be demonstrated in nodular basal cell carcinoma (BCC). The o_HD-OCT of normal and diseased skin could be assessed in vivo. This approach permitted the quantitative assessment of the OCT signal attenuation profiles of normal healthy skin, actinic keratosis (AK) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Differences in signal attenuation profiles could be demonstrated between these three groups. These differences were also observed between BCC subtypes. The slope of the exponential attenuation of the signal in the upper part of the epidermis was very high in benign nevi. The more malignant the lesion the lower the slope. Thickness measurements of epidermis and papillary dermis could be performed by m_HD-OCT, based on a cross-sectional images and their corresponding en face image. More accurate measurements of epidermal and papillary dermal thickness could be performed based on the optical analysis of a skin volume by o_HD-OCT. The diagnostic potential of HD-OCT in comparison with dermoscopy, RCM and C-OCT could be assessed regarding i) melanoma, ii) BCC differentiation from BCC imitators and BCC sub-differentiation and iii) SCC differentiation from AK. A much higher diagnostic potential could be demonstrated for o_HD-OCT in comparison with m_HD-OCT concerning melanoma detection. The diagnostic potential of HD-OCT to discriminate BCC from clinical BCC imitators was moderate. However, HD-OCT seemed to have high potential in sub-differentiation of BCC subtypes: i) it seemed to be the best technique to include and exclude a superficial BCC, ii) the technique appeared to be the best approach to exclude nodular BCC, and iii) HD-OCT looked to be the best technique to include an infiltrative BCC. Finally, HD-OCT has proven to be a powerful method to discriminate AK from SCC.Conclusions. HD-OCT is able to capture real time 3-D imaging with a sufficiently high optical resolution and penetration depth to allow the visualization of cells in and ex vivo in their micro-architectural context. At the same time, HD-OCT permits the recognition of patterns and structures in a sufficiently large volume of skin (1.5 mm³). HD-OCT closes therefore the gap between RCM with a high resolution but low penetration depth and C-OCT with a low resolution but high penetration depth. Moreover, HD-OCT permits, in contrast to RCM and C-OCT, the real time in vivo analysis of optical properties of the skin. HD-OCT seems to be a promising tool for early diagnosis of melanoma, BCC sub-differentiation and differentiation between SCC and AK.Future perspectives. Multicenter validation studies are needed to determine the diagnostic performance of this promising new technology, especially in other clinical settings combining both morphological and optical property analysis. This combined analysis could be a valuable method not only for diagnosis, monitoring and therapeutic guidance of dermatologic diseases but it could also be helpful in the management of non-dermatologic conditions such as diabetic micro-angiopathy, infantile cystinosis or even osteoporosis. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Santé Publique) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished