Males of the Mexican lizard Sceloporus minor (Phrynosomatidae) exhibit striking variation in dorsal coloration, both within and among populations, which may have arisen by sexual selection. The possible significance of this trait was investigated through a combination of observational and experimental approaches. This research revealed that males in one population (La Manzana) in NW Hidalgo exhibit three discrete color morphs (blue, yellow, red) each characterized by morphological, physiological and behavioral differences. Furthermore, these morphs can be identified by an objective approach to color assessment (spectroradiometry). In addition, males in a second population (Escalerillas) from SE San Luis Potosí were also found to occur in at least two color morphs (yellow and red), suggesting that color polymorphism may be general in this species. The hypothesis of sensory exploitation by male contest competition was tested for S. minor from Escalerillas; however, no support for this hypothesis was found. Overall, results from this study are consistent with the hypothesis of alternative reproductive tactics in S. minor.

Immunity and reproduction are important and costly life-history traits and a large part of eco-immunology focuses on trade-offs between investing in reproduction versus immunity. Male Cape ground squirrels (Xerus inauris) are a good organism to test these trade-offs as they invest heavily in sperm competition, evidenced by their large testes, and exhibit alternative reproductive tactics. My research objective was to determine 1) if testosterone suppresses immunity, or if immunity suppresses testosterone, and 2) if alternative reproductive tactics differ in their investments in immunity and reproduction. I found evidence that testosterone was suppressed after an immune challenge, and that manipulatively increased testosterone had no effect on immunity, body condition or parasites. The dispersing tactic males were in worse condition, had higher parasite abundances, but showed no difference in their innate immune ability to non-dispersing males. Males incur increased costs with dispersal and may focus their energy into reproduction instead of immunity. / October 2015

Dans un contexxte de sélection sexuelle, les signaux émis par les mâles sont censés refléter honnêtement leur condition. Etant donné que la condition est un concept multifactoriel, il a été propposé que les différentes composantes des signaux sexuels reflètent différents aspects de la condition de l'émetteur (Hypothèse des messages multiples). Ma thèse a pour but de tester la condition-dépendance des signaux sexuel et l'hypothèse des messages multiples en manipulant différents aspects de la condition mâle ; et d'étudier les moyens de contourner un système de signalement honnête par des tactiques de reproduction alternatives. Nous avons conduit ces expériences chez Hyla arborea, espèce chez laquelle les mâles émettent des signaux comprenant des composantes accoustiques et visuelles impliquées dans le choix du partenaires sexuel. Nos résultats suggèrent que le taux de chant intra-bout, une propriétédynamique, est un indicateur de la condition actuelle, alors que la fréquence dominante, une prpriété statique du chant, semble indépendante de la condition actuelle mais liée à la condition passée. Les composantes visuelles du signal sont indépendantes des variations du statut mutirtionnel à court terme mais pourraient être des indicateurs de la condition passée. L'adoption d'une tactique satellite dépend plus de la condition passée que de l'actuelle. Plusieurs composantes du signal sont liées à différents aspects de la condition du mâle, ce qui supporte l'hypothèsedes messages multiples. CEpendant, les relations entre les composantes et les aspects de la condtion sont faibles et nous poussent à considérer également la dynamique évolutive des systèmes de signalements. / In a sexual selection context, signals displayed by males are supposed to reflect honestly their condition. Given that condition is a mutlifactorial concet, it has been propposed that the multiple compopnenets often involved in sexual signal reflects differents aspect of emitter's condition (multiple messages hypothesis). My thesis aimed at testing the condition-dependance of sexual signals and the muliple messages hypothesis by manipulating different aspects of male condition ; and at investigating ways to circumvent an honest signalling systems through alternative reproductive tactics. We conduced these experiments on the European treefrog (Hyla arborea), a species in wich males display signals with both accoustic ansd visual components used by females during mate choice. Our results suggest that the within-bout call rate, a dynamic call property, is a reliable indicator of current condition while call dominant frequency, a static call property, seems to be independant from current conditions but is linked to past condition. Visual signal components are independant from variations in nutritional status on short term but are linked to male condition in the field and may be indicators of past condition. The adoption of satellite tactic depends more on past condition than on current condition.. As several signal components are related to the emitter'scondition and seem to be independant upon distinct aspects of this condition, our results mainly support the multiple messages hypothesis. However, the weak correlations betxeen signal components and condition aspects found in this study highlight the necessity to consider also the evolutionary dynamics of signalliings systems.

The European earwig exhibits a remarkable male-dimorphism in forceps morphology that is associated with alternative reproductive tactics under the control of a conditional evolutionarily stable strategy. Populations on the small, rocky islands of the Farnes off the Northumberland coast are known to sustain populations with dramatically higher morph ratios than observed on the UK mainland. A survey conducted of island and mainland sites around the UK showed that the dimorphic populations of the Farnes are similar to other islands and that mainland populations generally exhibit low morph ratios. Additionally, a correlation between morph ratio and population density was found lending support to the hypothesis that the ESS thresholds that define the morph ratios have diverged through local adaptation. A set of seven microsatellite markers are presented that were developed from a Farne island population of F. auricularia with one additional, previously published locus. These eight markers exhibit genetic variability within and between populations and as such can potentially be applied at a range of scales, from broad-scale phylogeography to within population parentage studies. A phylogeographic study of the UK populations using these markers suggests a single postglacial colonisation from mainland Europe and give further support to the local adaptation hypothesis of ESS threshold evolution. A study of ejaculate size in F. auricularia showed that the males transfer free sperm at a steady rate and that the morphs do not differ in the number of sperm per ejaculate. Measurements of change in body-mass were found to be ineffective measures of ejaculate size, but that macrolabic males lost more weight during copula than brachylabic males. This may be the result of differential investment in accessory ejaculate components between the morphs, as a result of the differing risk of sperm competition.

Theory predicts that in species with a greater risk of sperm competition, males will invest more in ejaculate traits. In species with alternative mating tactics (AMTs), males of different phenotypes will be under different sperm competition risk. Because minors sneak inside other males\' territories to mate they should always face sperm competition. Major males, on the other hand, defend territories and have more chance of mating exclusively with females. For majors, the risk of sperm competition is theoretically lower. The main prediction from game theory models for species with AMTs is that majors invest less in ejaculate traits than minors. However, when the proportion of minors in the population increases, majors should invest more in ejaculate traits, reaching a similar level of ejaculate expenditure to minors. In this study, we tested these predictions with a meta-regression analysis of 29 fish species with AMTs. As a proxy for the risk of sperm competition, we ranked each species according to a sperm competition rank with five levels, from 1 (low risk of sperm competition) to 5 (high risk of sperm competition). Overall, we found that minors invest more in ejaculate traits than majors. We also categorized the ejaculate expenditure of males, according to the original variables quantified in the studies that were included in our analysis and found that minors invest more energy in the production of gonads than majors. Additionally, minors and majors have a similar investment in sperm number and sperm quality, but majors allocate more sperm to females. Overall, the sperm competition rank did not influence the magnitude of the difference in investment of majors and minors. The differential investment in gonad mass between majors and minors should represent an increase in sperm numbers, but our data showed that majors and minors are not producing different amount of sperm. Therefore, the higher investment in gonad mass can be related to minors mating more frequently than majors. minors are not able to produce sperm in greater quantities than majors, but they probably can replenish sperm faster than majors. Against theoretical predictions, sperm quality does not respond to differences of sperm competition, probably because sperm quality is not under such strong selection as gonad mass. Our findings suggest that, in fishes with alternative mating tactics, both majors and minors are under strong selection from sperm competition, even when the risk of polyandry is low / A teoria prevê que em espécies sob maior risco de competição espermática, os machos irão investir mais em características do ejaculado. Em espécies com táticas alternativas de acasalamento (AMTs), machos de fenótipos diferentes estão sob diferentes riscos de competição espermática. Uma vez que machos minors (i.e., machos furtivos) se esgueiram para dentro do território de outros machos para acasalar, eles provavelmente sempre enfrentam competição espermática. Machos major, por outro lado, defendem territórios e possuem uma chance maior de acasalar exclusivamente com fêmeas. Para os majors, o risco de competição espermática é teoricamente menor. A principal previsão de modelos de teoria dos jogos para espécies com AMTs é que majors investem menos em características de ejaculado do que minors. Entretanto, quando a proporção de minors em uma população aumenta, os majors devem investir mais em características do ejaculado, alcançando um nível similar de investimento em ejaculado que os minors. Neste estudo, nós testamos essas previsões com uma meta-regressão de 29 espécies de peixes com AMTs. Como proxy para o risco de competição espermática, nós classificamos cada espécie de acordo com um ranking de competição espermática. Esse ranking utiliza características de história de vida e demografia de cada espécie, e possui cinco níveis, de 1 (baixo risco de competição espermática) até 5 (alto risco de competição espermática). De maneira geral, nós encontramos que minors investem mais em características de ejaculado do que majors. Nós também categorizamos o investimento em ejaculado dos machos de acordo com as variáveis originais quantificadas nos estudos que foram incluídos na nossa análise e encontramos o resultado de que minors investem mais na produção de gônadas para seu próprio tamanho do que majors. Além disso, minors e majors apresentam investimento similar em número de espermatozoides e qualidade espermática, mas majors alocam mais esperma para as fêmeas. Em geral, o ranking de competição espermática não influenciou a magnitude da diferença de investimento entre majors e minors. O investimento diferencial em massa gonadal entre majors e minors deveria representar um aumento no número de espermatozoides, porém nossos dados mostraram que majors e minors não estão produzindo quantidades diferentes de esperma. Assim, um investimento maior em massa gonadal pode estar relacionado aos minors acasalarem mais frequentemente que os majors. minors não conseguem produzir esperma em maiores quantidades que os majors, mas eles provavelmente conseguem repor seu estoque de esperma mais rápido que os majors. Contrário às previsões teóricas, a qualidade espermática não responde às variações de competição espermática, provavelmente porque a qualidade espermática não está sob forte seleção como a massa gonadal. Nossos resultados sugerem que, em peixes com táticas alternativas de acasalamento, tanto os majors como os minors estão sob forte seleção da competição espermática, mesmo quando o risco de poliandria é baixo

O processo de seleção sexual influencia de forma intensa o sucesso reprodutivo de cada indivíduo. Desde sua formulação teórica durante o século XIX, evidências cumulativas a respeito da poliandria em fêmeas permitiram a ampliação de seu conceito inicial, uma vez constatada que a disputa pela paternidade da prole não se limitava à competição pelo acesso à fêmea, mas poderia também prolongar-se mesmo após a cópula. Durante a década de 1970, essa disputa pós-copulatória entre machos foi formalizada sob o conceito de competição espermática, a qual visa a maximizar o sucesso do esperma de um macho sobre um rival na fertilização dos ovos. Evidências para um número crescente de táxons demonstram que a intensa competição pré e pós-copulatória entre machos é também uma das fontes responsáveis pela evolução e manutenção de táticas alternativas de reprodução dentro de uma mesma espécie, nas quais machos com menor sucesso na monopolização de fêmeas e combate com intraespecíficos adotam comportamentos furtivos para acesso ao sexo oposto, como forma de assegurar algum sucesso reprodutivo. Em muitas espécies, a adoção de táticas alternativas de reprodução são relacionadas não somente às diferenças comportamentais entre os machos, mas também à diversidade fenotípica dentro do mesmo sexo, caracterizada por descontinuidades morfológicas, fisiológicas e de ciclo de vida, conhecida pelo termo ‘dimorfismo intrassexual’. Em lulas da família Loliginidae, a existência de morfos alternativos, denominados machos consort e sneaker, já foi constatada para diversas espécies e é associada a diferenças comportamentais entre eles, principalmente relacionadas à posição de cópula e sítio de deposição de espermatóforos no interior da fêmea. No entanto, a associação entre táticas alternativas de reprodução e dimorfismo intrassexual em machos é praticamente desconhecida, com exceção à espécie Heterololigo bleekeri, para a qual esse dimorfismo tem sido estudado extensivamente ao longo da última década. Nesse contexto, a presente Dissertação de Mestrado teve como principal objetivo investigar a existência de dimorfismo intrassexual masculino em Doryteuthis plei (Blainville, 1823), uma espécie de importância comercial para as regiões Sul e Sudeste do Brasil e para a qual, apesar de evidências indiretas sugerirem sua presença, tal dimorfismo nunca havia sido averiguado. Por meio de análises morfológicas e modelos estatísticos, o primeiro capítulo descreve a existência desse dimorfismo na espécie, o qual foi reconhecido a partir da constatação da presença de duas classes de tamanho de machos sexualmente maduros, caracterizadas pela produção de espermatóforos e espermatângios com morfologias descontínuas. Além disso, espermatângios amostrados de machos das duas classes de tamanho mostraram-se congruentes àquelas implantados nos dois sítios distintos da fêmea, resultado que permitiu associar o dimorfismo intrassexual à adoção das táticas de sneaker e consort na espécie. A partir dessa constatação, o primeiro capítulo explorou ainda o investimento gonadal exibido por machos dimórficos. Os resultados mostraram que machos sneakers apresentavam maiores investimentos relativos em gônadas do que machos consorts, um resultado que se enquadra nos modelos teóricos de “sneaks and guarders” de competição espermática. No entanto, enquanto as premissas teóricas propõem também que machos sneakers devem apresentar maiores investimentos por fêmea, constatamos que, na espécie de estudo, machos sneakers produzem espermatóforos com menor proporção de massa espermática do que machos consorts. Esses resultados, somados a observações comportamentais realizadas ao longo desse trabalho, sugerem que a estratégia adotada por machos sneakers deve estar relacionada ao fracionamento de seu investimento em produtos ejaculatórios, de forma que investimentos menores por fêmea permitiriam a realização de maior número de cópulas. Dando continuidade à caracterização do dimorfismo intrassexual na espécie, análises comparativas entre machos dimórficos com relação a estruturas do sistema reprodutor, tema do segundo capítulo, demonstraram que as diferenças quanto à morfologia funcional de espermatóforos intactos estavam associadas às divergências encontradas quanto à reação espermatofórica, liberação de espermatozoides e morfologia de espermatângios entre machos sneakers e consorts. Além disso, sob o contexto da competição espermática, o segundo capítulo discute como o padrão de reprodução de lulas da família Loliginidae, e.g., a existência de dois sítios de fertilização e diferenças nos intervalos entre cópulas e desovas, resultaria em pressões seletivas divergentes sobre os produtos ejaculatórios de machos dimórficos e influenciaria a evolução e manutenção do dimorfismo intrassexual na espécie. Por fim, o terceiro capítulo aborda a descoberta de machos com espermatóforos e espermatângios com morfologias intermediárias entre os fenótipos de sneakers e consorts, além da questão da diferença de idade entre machos dimórficos. Combinados, os resultados desse capítulo permitiram a proposição de uma hipótese ontogenética sobre a expressão de fenótipos alternativos na espécie, uma questão extremamente inovadora para cefalópodes. Apesar de tratar-se de um campo ainda completamente inexplorado para o grupo, espera-se que esses resultados contribuam para a compreensão dos fatores responsáveis pela expressão sequencial de fenótipos alternativos e pela determinação do dimorfismo intrassexual em lulas / Sexual selection comprises a powerful force that intensively influences the reproductive success of each individual. Since its theoretical formulation in the nineteenth century, cumulative evidence regarding the existence of polyandry in females has expanded its initial concept, once it became clear that offspring paternity disputes were not limited to the competition for female access, but that they could in fact be prolonged even after copulation. In the 1970s, this male post-copulatory dispute was formalized under the concept of sperm competition, which aims at maximizing the success of one male’s sperm over its competitors in the fertilization of females’ eggs. Evidence gathered from a growing number of taxa has shown that intense pre and post-copulatory competition between males is also one of the responsible sources for the evolution and maintenance of alternative reproductive tactics within a species, in which males that are less successful in mate guarding and fighting contests with conspecifics adopt sneaking and opportunistic behaviors as a way to ensure some mating success. In many species, alternative mating tactics are not restricted to behavioral differences between males, being also related to a phenotypic diversity, with discontinuous morphological and physiological traits and distinct life histories between conspecifics, a phenomenon known as intrasexual dimorphism. In loliginid squids, the existence of alternative morphs (sneaker and consort males) has already been reported for several species, and it is has been correlated to behavioral differences, specially related to mating position and spermatophore deposition sites within the female\'s body. However, the association between alternative mating tactics and male intrasexual dimorphism is virtually unexplored, except for the species Heterololigo bleekeri, in which such dimorphism has been extensively studied over the last decade. In this context, the present Master’s Dissertation aimed to investigate the existence of male intrasexual dimorphism in Doryteuthis plei (Blainville, 1823), a squid of commercial importance in southern and southeastern Brazil, and for which such dimorphism has never been investigated, although indirect evidence suggests its existence. Using morphological analyses and statistical models, the first chapter describes the presence of such dimorphism in the species, which was detected based on the identification of two body size classes of sexually mature males, characterized by spermatophores and spermatangia displaying discontinuous morphologies between each other. Moreover, spermatangia sampled from both body size classes were congruent with those implanted on distinct female sites, a result that allowed the association between intrassexual dimorphism and adoption of sneaker and consort mating tactics in the species. Additionally, the first chapter also investigated the gonadal investment from dimorphic males, showing that sneakers exhibited higher investments in gonads than consorts, a result that fits into the theoretical ‘sneaks and guards’ models of sperm competition. However, while theoretical assumptions propose that sneakers should also present larger investments per female, we show that D. plei sneaker males produce spermatophores with lower concentrations of sperm mass than consorts. Combining these results with behavioral observations obtained throughout this study, we suggest that the sneaker strategy might be related to partitioning their ejaculate expenditure into extra mating opportunities, thus investing less per female but more in number of copulations. A further characterization of intrasexual dimorphism in this species was the main subject of the second chapter. Through comparative analyses of reproductive structures from dimorphic males, the results revealed that differences in the structural morphology of intact spermatophores were associated to differences regarding the spermatophoric reaction, spermatozoa release and spermatangia morphology between sneakers and consorts. Furthermore, under the context of sperm competition, the second chapter also provided a discussion on how the reproductive pattern of loliginid squids, e.g., the existence of two sites for fertilization of eggs and differences in the interval between mating and egg-laying, might result in divergent selective pressures on ejaculates from dimorphic males, influencing the evolution and maintenance of intrasexual dimorphism in this species. Finally, the third chapter describes the discovery of males that produced spermatophores and spermatangia displaying intermediate morphologies between both sneaker and consort phenotypes, and age differences reported for dimorphic males in the species. Combined, these results allowed the formulation of an ontogenetic hypothesis regarding alternative phenotype expression, which is extremely innovative for cephalopods. Although this hypothesis comprises a completely unexplored field for this group, it is highly expected that these results might contribute to the further understanding of possible factors that may be responsible for the sequential expression of alternative phenotypes, and ultimately for the determination of intrasexual dimorphism in squids

O processo de seleção sexual influencia de forma intensa o sucesso reprodutivo de cada indivíduo. Desde sua formulação teórica durante o século XIX, evidências cumulativas a respeito da poliandria em fêmeas permitiram a ampliação de seu conceito inicial, uma vez constatada que a disputa pela paternidade da prole não se limitava à competição pelo acesso à fêmea, mas poderia também prolongar-se mesmo após a cópula. Durante a década de 1970, essa disputa pós-copulatória entre machos foi formalizada sob o conceito de competição espermática, a qual visa a maximizar o sucesso do esperma de um macho sobre um rival na fertilização dos ovos. Evidências para um número crescente de táxons demonstram que a intensa competição pré e pós-copulatória entre machos é também uma das fontes responsáveis pela evolução e manutenção de táticas alternativas de reprodução dentro de uma mesma espécie, nas quais machos com menor sucesso na monopolização de fêmeas e combate com intraespecíficos adotam comportamentos furtivos para acesso ao sexo oposto, como forma de assegurar algum sucesso reprodutivo. Em muitas espécies, a adoção de táticas alternativas de reprodução são relacionadas não somente às diferenças comportamentais entre os machos, mas também à diversidade fenotípica dentro do mesmo sexo, caracterizada por descontinuidades morfológicas, fisiológicas e de ciclo de vida, conhecida pelo termo ‘dimorfismo intrassexual’. Em lulas da família Loliginidae, a existência de morfos alternativos, denominados machos consort e sneaker, já foi constatada para diversas espécies e é associada a diferenças comportamentais entre eles, principalmente relacionadas à posição de cópula e sítio de deposição de espermatóforos no interior da fêmea. No entanto, a associação entre táticas alternativas de reprodução e dimorfismo intrassexual em machos é praticamente desconhecida, com exceção à espécie Heterololigo bleekeri, para a qual esse dimorfismo tem sido estudado extensivamente ao longo da última década. Nesse contexto, a presente Dissertação de Mestrado teve como principal objetivo investigar a existência de dimorfismo intrassexual masculino em Doryteuthis plei (Blainville, 1823), uma espécie de importância comercial para as regiões Sul e Sudeste do Brasil e para a qual, apesar de evidências indiretas sugerirem sua presença, tal dimorfismo nunca havia sido averiguado. Por meio de análises morfológicas e modelos estatísticos, o primeiro capítulo descreve a existência desse dimorfismo na espécie, o qual foi reconhecido a partir da constatação da presença de duas classes de tamanho de machos sexualmente maduros, caracterizadas pela produção de espermatóforos e espermatângios com morfologias descontínuas. Além disso, espermatângios amostrados de machos das duas classes de tamanho mostraram-se congruentes àquelas implantados nos dois sítios distintos da fêmea, resultado que permitiu associar o dimorfismo intrassexual à adoção das táticas de sneaker e consort na espécie. A partir dessa constatação, o primeiro capítulo explorou ainda o investimento gonadal exibido por machos dimórficos. Os resultados mostraram que machos sneakers apresentavam maiores investimentos relativos em gônadas do que machos consorts, um resultado que se enquadra nos modelos teóricos de “sneaks and guarders” de competição espermática. No entanto, enquanto as premissas teóricas propõem também que machos sneakers devem apresentar maiores investimentos por fêmea, constatamos que, na espécie de estudo, machos sneakers produzem espermatóforos com menor proporção de massa espermática do que machos consorts. Esses resultados, somados a observações comportamentais realizadas ao longo desse trabalho, sugerem que a estratégia adotada por machos sneakers deve estar relacionada ao fracionamento de seu investimento em produtos ejaculatórios, de forma que investimentos menores por fêmea permitiriam a realização de maior número de cópulas. Dando continuidade à caracterização do dimorfismo intrassexual na espécie, análises comparativas entre machos dimórficos com relação a estruturas do sistema reprodutor, tema do segundo capítulo, demonstraram que as diferenças quanto à morfologia funcional de espermatóforos intactos estavam associadas às divergências encontradas quanto à reação espermatofórica, liberação de espermatozoides e morfologia de espermatângios entre machos sneakers e consorts. Além disso, sob o contexto da competição espermática, o segundo capítulo discute como o padrão de reprodução de lulas da família Loliginidae, e.g., a existência de dois sítios de fertilização e diferenças nos intervalos entre cópulas e desovas, resultaria em pressões seletivas divergentes sobre os produtos ejaculatórios de machos dimórficos e influenciaria a evolução e manutenção do dimorfismo intrassexual na espécie. Por fim, o terceiro capítulo aborda a descoberta de machos com espermatóforos e espermatângios com morfologias intermediárias entre os fenótipos de sneakers e consorts, além da questão da diferença de idade entre machos dimórficos. Combinados, os resultados desse capítulo permitiram a proposição de uma hipótese ontogenética sobre a expressão de fenótipos alternativos na espécie, uma questão extremamente inovadora para cefalópodes. Apesar de tratar-se de um campo ainda completamente inexplorado para o grupo, espera-se que esses resultados contribuam para a compreensão dos fatores responsáveis pela expressão sequencial de fenótipos alternativos e pela determinação do dimorfismo intrassexual em lulas / Sexual selection comprises a powerful force that intensively influences the reproductive success of each individual. Since its theoretical formulation in the nineteenth century, cumulative evidence regarding the existence of polyandry in females has expanded its initial concept, once it became clear that offspring paternity disputes were not limited to the competition for female access, but that they could in fact be prolonged even after copulation. In the 1970s, this male post-copulatory dispute was formalized under the concept of sperm competition, which aims at maximizing the success of one male’s sperm over its competitors in the fertilization of females’ eggs. Evidence gathered from a growing number of taxa has shown that intense pre and post-copulatory competition between males is also one of the responsible sources for the evolution and maintenance of alternative reproductive tactics within a species, in which males that are less successful in mate guarding and fighting contests with conspecifics adopt sneaking and opportunistic behaviors as a way to ensure some mating success. In many species, alternative mating tactics are not restricted to behavioral differences between males, being also related to a phenotypic diversity, with discontinuous morphological and physiological traits and distinct life histories between conspecifics, a phenomenon known as intrasexual dimorphism. In loliginid squids, the existence of alternative morphs (sneaker and consort males) has already been reported for several species, and it is has been correlated to behavioral differences, specially related to mating position and spermatophore deposition sites within the female\'s body. However, the association between alternative mating tactics and male intrasexual dimorphism is virtually unexplored, except for the species Heterololigo bleekeri, in which such dimorphism has been extensively studied over the last decade. In this context, the present Master’s Dissertation aimed to investigate the existence of male intrasexual dimorphism in Doryteuthis plei (Blainville, 1823), a squid of commercial importance in southern and southeastern Brazil, and for which such dimorphism has never been investigated, although indirect evidence suggests its existence. Using morphological analyses and statistical models, the first chapter describes the presence of such dimorphism in the species, which was detected based on the identification of two body size classes of sexually mature males, characterized by spermatophores and spermatangia displaying discontinuous morphologies between each other. Moreover, spermatangia sampled from both body size classes were congruent with those implanted on distinct female sites, a result that allowed the association between intrassexual dimorphism and adoption of sneaker and consort mating tactics in the species. Additionally, the first chapter also investigated the gonadal investment from dimorphic males, showing that sneakers exhibited higher investments in gonads than consorts, a result that fits into the theoretical ‘sneaks and guards’ models of sperm competition. However, while theoretical assumptions propose that sneakers should also present larger investments per female, we show that D. plei sneaker males produce spermatophores with lower concentrations of sperm mass than consorts. Combining these results with behavioral observations obtained throughout this study, we suggest that the sneaker strategy might be related to partitioning their ejaculate expenditure into extra mating opportunities, thus investing less per female but more in number of copulations. A further characterization of intrasexual dimorphism in this species was the main subject of the second chapter. Through comparative analyses of reproductive structures from dimorphic males, the results revealed that differences in the structural morphology of intact spermatophores were associated to differences regarding the spermatophoric reaction, spermatozoa release and spermatangia morphology between sneakers and consorts. Furthermore, under the context of sperm competition, the second chapter also provided a discussion on how the reproductive pattern of loliginid squids, e.g., the existence of two sites for fertilization of eggs and differences in the interval between mating and egg-laying, might result in divergent selective pressures on ejaculates from dimorphic males, influencing the evolution and maintenance of intrasexual dimorphism in this species. Finally, the third chapter describes the discovery of males that produced spermatophores and spermatangia displaying intermediate morphologies between both sneaker and consort phenotypes, and age differences reported for dimorphic males in the species. Combined, these results allowed the formulation of an ontogenetic hypothesis regarding alternative phenotype expression, which is extremely innovative for cephalopods. Although this hypothesis comprises a completely unexplored field for this group, it is highly expected that these results might contribute to the further understanding of possible factors that may be responsible for the sequential expression of alternative phenotypes, and ultimately for the determination of intrasexual dimorphism in squids

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Sperm competition is a widely-recognized and powerful selective force. Male accessory glands are organs found across animal taxa that can influence sperm performance, and thus may be selected for in competitive contexts. In fishes, these organs are in fact rare, but display great diversity in form and function across species. Although the accessory gland is known to play a role in mate attraction, parental care, fertilization, or post-copulatory competition in a few select species, the role of this organ remains a mystery in most species. Many fishes with accessory glands also exhibit alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs), which add an extra layer of complexity to how species respond to sperm competition. Because males of different ARTs typically experience different levels of sperm competition risk, it’s possible they may differentially invest in accessory glands to overcome this competition. In this thesis, I used the plainfin midshipman fish (Porichthys notatus), a species with both ARTs and an accessory gland, to experimentally investigate the role of the accessory gland in sperm competition and uncover how this organ may differ between ARTs. Over a two-year period, I studied tactic-specific investment in the accessory gland in fish from the beaches of British Columbia. I also examined the effects of seminal fluid, produced in part by the accessory gland, on sperm performance and morphology. I found that males adopting the ‘guarder’ male tactic invested more in one region (the lobules) of this organ, while males adopting the smaller ‘sneaker’ male tactic invested more the other region of the gland (the nodes). Using data collected over five years, I found that guarder males also invested more in their whole accessory glands. Additionally, I report that sperm swam faster in the presence of seminal fluid, and seminal fluid increased sperm head size in both male tactics and increased midpiece size in guarder males. These results suggest that the plainfin midshipman accessory gland may have dual functions, one of which may be to aid sperm competitive ability through enhancements in swimming speed and potentially more successful sperm morphology. Taken together, the results of my thesis improve our knowledge of the role of non-sperm components like seminal fluid and the accessory gland in sperm competition, and demonstrate how species with ARTs can have varying physiological responses to such competition. Only a handful of studies have considered the effects of seminal fluid on sperm performance. By examining sperm competition in a more biologically relevant way and incorporating the effects of a little-studied organ that impacts sperm competition, we should be able to more generally and accurately appreciate the dynamics of post-copulatory competition and fertilization. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)