Lake surface water temperatures (LSWTs) of 246 globally distributed large lakes were derived from Along-Track Scanning Radiometers (ATSR) for the period 1991 to 2011. These LSWTs, derived in a systematic manner, presents an ideal opportunity to study LSWT behaviour on a global scale. In this thesis, the annual cycles of lake-mean LSWTs derived from these data quantify the responses of large lakes’ surface temperatures to the annual cycle of forcing by solar radiation and the ambient air temperature. Minimum monthly net surface solar irradiance (netSSI) strongly influences minimum LSWTs of non-seasonally ice covered lakes (where lake-mean LSWT remains above 1 ºC throughout the annual cycle), explaining > 0.88 (R2 adj) of the inter-lake variation in both hemispheres. In some regions, for seasonally ice covered lakes (where lake-mean LSWT remains below 1 ºC for part of the annual cycle) the minimum monthly netSSI is a better predictor than latitude, of the length of the frozen period, which shows the importance of local cloud climatological conditions. Additionally, at lake locations between 1º S to 12º N, the netSSI, shown to peak twice annually, is reflected in the LSWT annual cycle. The summer maximum LSWTs of lakes from 25º S to 35º N show a linear decrease with increasing altitude; -3.76 + 0.17 ºC km-1 (R2 adj = 0.95), marginally lower than the corresponding air temperature -4.15 + 0.24 ºC km-1 (R2 adj = 0.95) decrease with altitude. The start and end of the period where the lake-mean LSWT is greater than 4 ºC shows strong correlation with the spring and autumn 0 ºC air temperature crossing days, (R2 adj = 0.74 and 0.80 respectively). The temporally and spatially resolved LSWT observations allows for a greater practical understanding of LSWT behaviour of large lakes. For example, lakes with a greater LSWT annual range have more observed variability in the LSWT extremes, highlighting that they may be more responsive to changes in the climate than lakes with a low annual range. The nighttime LSWT trends show stronger warming than day-night trends in the all regions, except Europe. The lake centre LSWT trends and absolute values can be generally considered representative of the lake-mean LSWT trends and absolute values. The observed LSWT time series are used to tune a 1-dimensional thermodynamic lake model, FLake. By tuning FLake using only 3 basic lake properties, shown by myself to have the most influence over LSWTs (depth, snow and ice albedo and light extinction co-efficient), the daily mean absolute differences for 244 lakes is reduced from 3.38 + 2.74 ºC (untuned model) to 0.85 + 0.61 ºC (tuned model). The effect of wind speed, lake depth, albedo and light extinction co-efficient on LSWTs is demonstrated throughout the tuning process. The modelled summer LSWT response to changes in ice-off is strongly affected by lake depth and latitude explaining 0.50 (R2 adj, p = 0.001) of the inter-lake variation in summer LSWTs. Lake depth alone explains 0.35 (p = 0.003) of the variation, highlighting the sensitivity of the summer LSWTs of deeper lakes to changes in the ice-off. Statistically significant summer/ maximum month modelled LSWT trends, from 1979-2011 are presented for lakes where the modelled LSWTs are strongly supported by observed LSWTs over the period of available observed LSWTs. For these lakes, the trends show LSWT warming of between 0.73 – 2.10 ºC for 29 lakes in northern temperate regions over the 33 year period (1979 – 2011). The modelled regional trends of all lakes over the same period show least warming in Africa of 0.30 ºC and the greatest warming in Europe, 1.35 º.

Manmade climate change has expressed a plethora of complex effects on Earth's biogeochemical compartments. Climate change may also affect the mobilisation of natural metal sources, with potential ecological consequences beyond mountains' geographical limits; however, this question has remained largely unexplored. We investigated this by analysing a number of key climatic factors in relationship with trace metal accumulation in the sediment core of a Pyrenean lake. The sediment metal contents showed increasing accumulation trend over time, and their levels varied in step with recent climate change. The findings further revealed that a rise in the elevation of freezing level, a general increase in the frequency of drier periods, changes in the frequency of winter freezing days and a reducing snow cover since the early 1980s, together are responsible for the observed variability and augmented accumulation of trace metals. Our results provide clear evidence of increased mobilisation of natural metal sources - an overlooked effect of climate change on the environment. With further alterations in climate equilibrium predicted over the ensuing decades, it is likely that mountain catchments in metamorphic areas may become significant sources of trace metals, with potentially harmful consequences for the wider environment.

Elément essentiel de la composition atmosphérique, les particules jouent un rôle important tant sur la qualité de l'air que sur le bilan radiatif de la Terre. Ce travail de thèse est une contribution à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes de formation par nucléation de nouvelles particules dans l'atmosphère naturelle. Il est orienté vers l'observation des premiers instants de la formation des particules, associée à la connaissance des conditions environnementales ayant favorisé ou limité son développement. Cette étude expérimentale est basée sur un ensemble de mesures longue durée sur deux sites d'altitude : le puy de Dôme (1465m, France) et l'observatoire ABC-Pyr, situé au pied de l'Everest (5079m, Népal). Nous avons dans un premier temps caractérisé l'aérosol présent sur le site du puy Dôme, et observé une forte variabilité saisonnière des concentrations, avec un maximum en été. Nous proposons des spectres dimensionnels représentatifs de chaque type de masse d'air (marine, continentale, régionale) en conditions de fond. La variabilité de la composition de l'atmosphère sur le site de ABC-Pyr apporte également des informations nouvelles sur le bruit de fond dans la Troposphère et l'influence des transports local/régional et longue distance. Sur les deux sites, on observe pour la première fois en haute altitude une fréquence élevée d'événements de nucléation. Une étude statistique montre que les processus photochimiques favorisent la nucléation et la croissance et que l'effet des nuages est également important, mais plus complexe. Le transport en altitude semble être, dans nos études, un processus favorisant les évènements de nucléation. Nous constatons que ce phénomène a une extension spatiale importante et que son influence sur le bilan radiatif et le climat ne peut pas être anodine.

The Arctic areas are warming more rapidly than other parts of the world. Increasing temperatures are predicted to result in shrubification, higher productivity, declining species diversity and new species invasions to the tundra. Changes in species diversity and plant community composition are likely to alter ecosystem functions with potential consequences for human population also at lower latitudes. Thus, in order to better predict the effects of the rapid arctic warming, we need knowledge on how plant communities respond to a warmer climate. Here, I investigate the effects of climate warming on tundra plant communities and focus on the role of mammalian herbivores in mediating these responses. I examined the role of herbivores by incorporating herbivore manipulations to short- and long-term warming experiments as well as along altitudinal gradients. I measured how individual plants and plant communities respond to warming with and without herbivores. Results of my PhD Thesis illustrate several ways how herbivores modify the responses of plants to warming. I found that herbivores (reindeer, hare, voles, lemmings) may prevent lowland forbs from invading open tundra.  Herbivores might also protect small tundra forbs from being outcompeted by taller and denser vegetation under climate warming. Thus, different herbivore pressures may lead to differing plant abundances and distribution shifts in different areas. Furthermore, my results show that high herbivore pressure can reverse the effects of long-term climate warming very rapidly, even in one year. This finding suggests that well-planned targeted reindeer grazing episodes could potentially be used as a conservation tool to keep selected tundra habitats open. Sudden cessation of grazing may initiate rapid changes in plant community, especially if it coincides with warm temperatures. Taken together, I show that herbivores counteract the effects of climate warming by slowing down or preventing vegetation changes in tundra. Therefore, it is important to consider mammalian herbivores when predicting tundra plant community responses to changing climate.

Submitted to the Information Technology (IT) Department in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Information Technology, Durban University of Technology. Durban, South Africa, 2016. / This doctoral research introduces an integration of satellite systems and new stratospheric platforms for weather observation, imaging and transfer of meteorological data to the ground infrastructures. Terrestrial configuration and satellite communication subsystems represent well-established technologies that have been involved in global satellite sensing and weather observation area for years. However, in recent times, a new alternative has emerged based on quasi-stationary aerial platforms located in the Stratosphere called High Altitude Platform (HAP) or Stratospheric Communication Platforms (SCP). The SCP systems seem to represent a dream come true for communication engineers since they preserve most of the advantages of both terrestrial and satellite communication systems. Today, SCP systems are able to help, in a more cost effective way, developments of space Earth sensing and weather observation and weather sensing and observation. This new system can provide a number of forms ranging from a low altitude tethered balloon to a high altitude (18 – 25 km) fuel-powered piloted aircraft, solar-powered unmanned airplanes and solar-powered airship.

The increased demand for broadband communications has led to the rapid development of the conventional terrestrial and satellite wireless communications systems. One of the main challenges to next generation wireless systems is to deliver high-capacity and cost-efficient solutions to cope with an increasing usage of broadband services and applications. In the recent years, an emerging competitive system has attracted the attention for providing wireless broadband communications and other services based on quasi-stationary aerial platforms operating in the stratosphere known by high altitude platforms (HAPs), and located 17-22 km above the earth surface. This solution has been described by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as "a new and long anticipated technology that can revolutionize the telecommunication industry''. The HAP systems provide important advantages such as low cost, high elevation angles, low propagation delay, easy and incremental deployment, flexibility in operation, broad coverage, broadcast and broadband capability, ability to move around in emergency situations, etc. Therefore, they have been proposed by ITU for the provision of fixed, mobile services and applications, e.g. the third generation (3G) services licensed by ITU and backbone link for terrestrial networks in remote areas. This thesis explores and investigates the wireless communication and techno-economic performance of terrestrial systems and HAPs. An overview of research and development on aerial platforms worldwide is given. Coexistence performance and techniques of heterogeneous systems to provide broadband wireless communications based on Worldwide Interoperability Microwave Access (WiMAX) are investigated. A heterogeneous scenario is developed to examine the coexistence performance of heterogeneous systems. The capacity and deployment aspects of HAPs are analyzed, and further compared with terrestrial Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS) through techno-economic studies including a proposed partnership based business model for HAPs. Performance of wireless sensor network applications via HAPs is also investigated, and shows the high potential of HAPs for large-area and long-endurance surveillance and emergency applications. The thesis shows that communications from the aerial platforms provide the best features of both terrestrial and satellite systems. HAPs can effectively coexist in a heterogeneous radio environment, and are competitive solutions in urban and suburban scenarios in terms of capacity, coverage and business perspective. This makes HAP a viable competitor and complement to conventional terrestrial infrastructures and satellite systems.

O conhecimento e o monitoramento do vasto potencial hídrico da bacia Amazônica têm sido uma preocupação de diversos campos da ciência e das administrações pública e privada que necessitam dessas informações. A Agência Nacional de Águas, por exemplo, é responsável pela manutenção e gerenciamento da rede hidrometeorológica do país, com mais de 1500 estações de observação. Para uma melhor análise e aplicação desse importante conjunto de informações nos estudos da bacia hidrográfica, faz-se necessário o estabelecimento de pontos que definam um referencial único para todos os dados, em especial para o cálculo da marca zero das réguas limnimétricas das estações de observação. A definição de um sistema de referência vertical envolve a escolha de um datum vertical e de um tipo de altitude relacionada com o campo de gravidade. Usualmente, o datum vertical relaciona-se ao nível médio dos mares, estimado a partir de uma ou mais estações maregráficas. Tendo em vista as dificuldades logísticas na Amazônia, a cobertura atual da rede altimétrica do IBGE não é suficiente para alcançar a maior parte dos pontos de medição. O presente trabalho concentra-se na avaliação do emprego dos sistemas espaciais de posicionamento (GPS) e de observação por radar-altímetro (TOPEX-POSEIDON) na definição de um referencial homogêneo para a bacia Amazônica, como alternativa ao nivelamento geométrico. Nessa pesquisa, foram implantados pontos de controle em toda a extensão do curso principal da bacia, nos rios Amazonas e Solimões, e as altitudes geométricas obtidas com o GPS foram reduzidas com diferentes modelos geoidais. São apresentados os resultados da comparação da linha d\'água dos rios, definida a partir das informações das séries temporais medidas nas réguas limnimétricas, com o referencial proposto, assim como sugestões para trabalhos futuros. / La connaissance et la surveillance de l\'immense potentiel hydrologique du bassin de l\'Amazone concernent plusieurs domaines de la science et des administrations publiques et privées. L\'agence nationale brésilienne de l\'eau (ANA) par exemple, est responsable de la planification et de la gestion d\'un réseau hydraulique et météorologique au niveau national, avec plus de 1500 stations d\'observation. Pour une meilleure analyse et application de cet ensemble important d\'informations sur les études du bassin hydrographique, il est nécessaire d\'établir un réseau de points définissant un référentiel unique pour toutes les données. C\'est particulièrement le cas pour le calcul de la référence du zéro hydrométrique des règles de mesures aux stations d\'observation du niveau d\'eau des rivières. La définition d\'un système vertical de référence implique le choix d\'informations verticales et d\'un type d\'altitude liés au champ de pesanteur. Habituellement, les informations verticales se rapportent au niveau moyen de la mer, estimé à partir d\'une ou plusieurs mesures de marégraphes. Au vu des difficultés logistiques en Amazonie, couverture actuelle du réseau altimétrique de l\'IBGE n\'est pas suffisante pour atteindre la plupart des postes de mesure. Le travail actuel se concentre donc sur l\'évaluation fournie par un système de positionnement global par satellite (GPS) et par l\'altimétrie radar (TOPEX POSEIDON) pour la définition d\'un référentiel vertical homogène pour le bassin de l\'Amazone, comme alternative à la mise en place du nivellement géométrique. Pour cette étude, Nous avons établi des points de contrôle le long du fleuve principal de bassin (Amazone et Solimoes) et nous avons réduit les altitudes géométriques obtenues avec le GPS en utilisant différents modèles de géoïde. Nous présentons les résultats de la comparaison des niveaux de l\'eau de la rivière, définis à partir des séries temporelles mesurées sur les échelles des rivières, avec le référentiel proposé. Nous présentons également des suggestions futures, concernant les orientations possibles de ces travaux.

The aim of this diploma thesis is to analyze three several-month concentration of a long-distance runner at higher altitude. Specifically, we compared the results of the measured values before staying in zones of high altitude and after arrival from high altitude. The tested individual was housed in Kenya in the town of Iten, located at 2,400 meters above sea level. To elaborate this thesis, we used the method of content analysis and the comparative method. To obtain the results, we used laboratory tests spiroergometry, spirometry, body composition and Wingate test. Then, the data was processed using material significance. The material significance was defined using Cohen's d. Our results showed an increase in red blood cells, an increase in VO2max, a reduction in heart rate, a reduction in morning heart rate. From these results, it is clear that alpine training has a positive effect on the performance of the athlete.

Civil aircraft manufactures seek profitable subsonic transport category operations above 40.000 feet through new and advanced civil aircraft projects, in order to meet with modern airline needs. This is due to the increase of air traffic below this altitude, as well as lower operational cost, and more efficient engines above this altitude. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), responsible for certification of aeronautical products in the United States has adapted requirement 14 CFR 25.841(a) for high-altitude operations, based on the numerous executive jets that operate at altitude above 40.000 feet and have obtained their type cetificate based on special conditions1. Although the FAA is considering revising this regulation, there is not enough physiological substantiation to do so at this time. This way, aircraft with wing-mounted engines cannot fully comply with this requirement and petition for a exemption which is always required. A trade-off analysis of a typical 70-seater regional jet, with wing-mounted engines, for high altitude operation trends has been completed. Aspects such as operational and economical advantages, certification and compliance impacts were considered.

O presente trabalho visa pesquisar a existência da estabilidade nos pontos de equilíbrio dos satélites de baixa altitude, sujeitos à ação dos torques gravitacional e aerodinâmico. O satélite em estudo encontra-se em uma órbita circular, sujeito à força de arrasto aplicada em seu centro de pressão e no sentido oposto a sua velocidade. Os pontos de equilíbrio estáveis são obtidos através do estudo da equação do equilíbrio e da equação característica do sistema, utilizando-se o critério de Routh Hurwitz. A utilização dos parâmetros x e y, que relacionam os momentos principais de inércia do satélite, permitem a apresentação das regiões de estabilidade no plano x e y, ou seja, cada um dos pontos que formam essas regiões representa uma distribuição de massa de um satélite em equilíbrio estável. O estudo foi dividido em três casos, buscando demonstrar a influência sobre a estabilidade devido a variação do posicionamento do centro de pressão: o ponto em que a resultante do arrasto é aplicada. Para isto, foi utilizada a abordagem numérica, o que tornou possível a apresentação dos resultados.