Amorphous selenium based digital radiography has attracted much attention because of selenium's high X-ray absorption and excellent charge transport properties, and the ability to be created thick (typically 100 to 1000 micron) uniform layers over a large area (typically 30 cm X 30 cm) at low processing temperatures (typically at around 50 degree C substrate temperature). In this work, the excess noise in amorphous selenium has been studied. A number of device parameters were altered to study the noise characteristics, such as the metal of the electrodes, bulk material composition, device volume, surface conditions and substrate temperature. All the samples had a transverse geometry with 20 to 200- micron thick layers of amorphous selenium electroded with metal at the top and at the bottom. Sample devices were fabricated by conventional vacuum deposition.<p> Noise power was measured over a limited bandwidth of 1 kHz. The fluctuations for one sample amounted to 1% of the bias current. The excess noise was mainly 1/<i>f</i> noise with the slope ranging from -0.77 to -1.4. Interpretation of the noise spectra was complicated due to the samples' highly non-linear I-V relation and long time transients.<p> The metals of the electrode clearly showed a large effect on both the magnitude and shape of the noise spectrum. Of the metals studied, aluminum produced the least normalized noise and platinum the most. The addition of arsenic caused a decrease in the normalized noise. An additional 0.2% (% wt.) arsenic decreased the 1/<i>f</i> noise magnitude by more than a decade, but did not change the slope. The addition of chlorine did not affect the noise magnitude. Amorphous selenium is quite vulnerable to stress and in particular, external mechanical stress causes crystallization. The surface of the sample was gently abraded, applying the least possible amount of stress to the selenium layer. A change in the surface condition before the top electrode was deposited showed that a roughened surface decreased the noise magnitude substantially. These results strongly indicate that the noise is controlled by the metal-semiconductor interface.<p> Noise characteristics in multilayered samples were examined. The p-i-n and n-i-p structures consisted of 200 micron i-layer with 2 to 6 micron p- and n-like layers. The noise fluctuation in the current are typical of 1/<i>f</i> noise showing a power-law spectrum with slopes between -0.9 to -1.1. These samples showed a substantial decrease in the noise power compared to single layer samples; the additional n-like and p-like layers acted as carrier sources so that the current was not controlled by the metal interface. Hence, the measurements are closer to the intrinsic noise of a-Se. After exposure to 14 R (Roentgen) of X-rays, the normalized noise decreased by a factor of 1.6 for the n-i-p structure.

A number of interventional procedures such as cardiac catheterization, angiography and the deployment of endovascular devices are routinely performed using x-ray fluoroscopy. To minimize the patient’s exposure to ionizing radiation, each fluoroscopic image is acquired using a very low x-ray exposure (~ 1 uR at the detector). At such an exposure, most semiconductor-based digital flat panel detectors (FPD) are not x-ray quantum noise limited (QNL) due to the presence of electronic noise which substantially degrades their imaging performance. The goal of this thesis was to investigate how a FPD based on amorphous selenium (a-Se) with internal avalanche multiplication gain could be used for QNL fluoroscopic imaging at the lowest clinical exposures while satisfying all of the requirements of a FPD for interventional radiology. Towards this end, it was first determined whether a-Se can reliably provide avalanche multiplication gain in the solid-state. An experimental method was developed which enabled the application of sufficiently large electric field strengths across the a-Se. This method resulted in avalanche gains as high as 10000 at an applied field of 105 V/um using optical excitation. This was the first time such high avalanche gains have been reported in a solid-state detector based on an amorphous material. Secondly, it was investigated how the solid-state a-Se avalanche detector could be used to image X-rays at diagnostic radiographic energies (~ 75 kVp). A dual-layered direct-conversion FPD architecture was proposed. It consisted of an x-ray drift region and a charge avalanche multiplication region and was found to eliminate depth-dependent gain fluctuation noise. It was shown that electric field strength non-uniformities in the a-Se do not degrade the detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Lastly, it was determined whether the solid-state a-Se avalanche detector satisfies all of the requirements of interventional radiology. Experimental results have shown that the total noise produced by the detector is negligible and that QNL operation at the lowest fluoroscopic exposures is indeed possible without any adverse effects occurring at much larger radiographic exposures. In conclusion, no fundamental obstacles were found preventing the use of avalanche a-Se in next-generation solid-state QNL FPDs for use in interventional radiology.

A number of interventional procedures such as cardiac catheterization, angiography and the deployment of endovascular devices are routinely performed using x-ray fluoroscopy. To minimize the patient’s exposure to ionizing radiation, each fluoroscopic image is acquired using a very low x-ray exposure (~ 1 uR at the detector). At such an exposure, most semiconductor-based digital flat panel detectors (FPD) are not x-ray quantum noise limited (QNL) due to the presence of electronic noise which substantially degrades their imaging performance. The goal of this thesis was to investigate how a FPD based on amorphous selenium (a-Se) with internal avalanche multiplication gain could be used for QNL fluoroscopic imaging at the lowest clinical exposures while satisfying all of the requirements of a FPD for interventional radiology. Towards this end, it was first determined whether a-Se can reliably provide avalanche multiplication gain in the solid-state. An experimental method was developed which enabled the application of sufficiently large electric field strengths across the a-Se. This method resulted in avalanche gains as high as 10000 at an applied field of 105 V/um using optical excitation. This was the first time such high avalanche gains have been reported in a solid-state detector based on an amorphous material. Secondly, it was investigated how the solid-state a-Se avalanche detector could be used to image X-rays at diagnostic radiographic energies (~ 75 kVp). A dual-layered direct-conversion FPD architecture was proposed. It consisted of an x-ray drift region and a charge avalanche multiplication region and was found to eliminate depth-dependent gain fluctuation noise. It was shown that electric field strength non-uniformities in the a-Se do not degrade the detective quantum efficiency (DQE). Lastly, it was determined whether the solid-state a-Se avalanche detector satisfies all of the requirements of interventional radiology. Experimental results have shown that the total noise produced by the detector is negligible and that QNL operation at the lowest fluoroscopic exposures is indeed possible without any adverse effects occurring at much larger radiographic exposures. In conclusion, no fundamental obstacles were found preventing the use of avalanche a-Se in next-generation solid-state QNL FPDs for use in interventional radiology.

Abstract Amorphous Selenium (a-Se) was first commercialized for use as a photoconductor in xerography during the middle of the twentieth century. Since then the hole transport properties of a-Se have been studied extensively, however the study of electron transport remains relatively limited. Flat panel digital X-ray detectors using a-Se as a photoconductor have been developed and are being used in mammographic screening. The charge transport properties of the photoconductor layer will in part determine the performance of the flat panel detector. X-ray absorption causes electron-hole pair generation in the bulk of the photoconductor, requiring both electrons and holes to drift across the sample and be collected. If these carriers are lost in the many localized trapping states as they cross the sample, they will not contribute to the image signal resulting in unnecessary radiation exposure to the patient. Eleven a-Se samples were deposited at the University of Saskatchewan varying in thickness from 13 μm to 501 μm. Pure a-Se was chosen to ensure uniformity across the thickness of the samples, that is, to ensure the composition of the film did not change across the thickness. Time of flight transient photoconductivity experiments (TOF) and interrupted field time of flight (IFTOF) measurements were performed to measure the electron drift mobility and lifetime respectively. The product of electron drift mobility μ and lifetime τ, hence the carrier range (μτ) at a given applied electric field. The electron range is an important parameter as this places limits on the practical thickness of the photoconducting layer in a detector. This study also includes an investigation into the effect of the definition of transit time on the calculated drift mobility and analysis of the dispersive transport properties of a-Se. It was observed that as sample thickness (L) increased, electron drift mobility (μ) decreased. In addition electron lifetime (τ) decreased dramatically in samples thinner than 50 μm. Electron range (μτ) was 2.26 × 〖10〗^(-6) cm^2/V in the 147μm sample and 5.46 × 〖10〗^(-8) cm^2/V in the 13 μm sample, a difference of almost two orders of magnitude. The comparison of the half current method and inflection point methods to calculate the transit time of the same TOF curve, shows that the calculated mobility can vary by as much as 24%. This illustrates clearly that it is important to use the same point on the TOF curve to define the transit time. Charge packet dispersion (spread) in the time domain in pure a-Se samples was proportional to L^m where L is the photoconductor thickness and m ~ 1.3, measured at both 1 V/μm and 4 V/μm.

Contrast-enhanced mammography (CEM) relies on visualizing the growth of new blood vessels (i.e. tumor angiogenesis) to provide sufficient materials for cell proliferation during the development of cancer. Since cancers will accumulate an injected contrast agent more than other tissues, it is possible to use one of several methods to enhance the area of lesions in the x-ray image and remove the contrast of normal tissue. Large area flat panel detectors may be used for CEM wherein the subtraction of two acquired images is used to create the resulting enhanced image. There exist several methods to acquire the images to be subtracted, which include temporal subtraction (pre- and post-contrast images) and dual-energy subtraction (low- and high-energy images), however these methods suffer from artifacts due to patient motion between image acquisitions. In this research the use of a multilayer flat panel detector is examined for CEM that is designed to acquire both (low- and high-energy) images simultaneously, thus avoiding motion artifacts in the resulting subtracted image. For comparison, a dual-energy technique prone to motion artifacts that uses a single-layer detector is also investigated. Both detectors are evaluated and optimized using amorphous selenium as the x-ray to charge conversion material, however the theoretical analysis could be extended to other conversion materials. Experimental results of single pixel prototypes of both multilayer and single-layer detectors are also discussed and compared to theoretical results. For a more comprehensive analysis, the motion artifacts present in dual-exposure techniques are modeled and the performance degradation due to motion artifacts is estimated. The effects of noise reduction techniques are also evaluated to determine potential image quality improvements in CEM images.

An alternative approach to energy integrating systems is photon counting which provides higher dose efficiency through efficient noise rejection and optimal energy weighting, and, moreover, is not susceptible to memory artifacts such as image lag and ghosting. The first large-area photon counting imager was Charpak's Nobel Prize winning invention of the gas-filled multiwire proportional chamber (MWPC), which revolutionized the field of radiation detection in 1968. In most applications, however, the use of a solid detection medium is preferable because solid densities are about three orders-of-magnitude greater than gas, and thus, they can yield much smaller detector dimensions with unsurpassed spatial and temporal resolution. Thus far, crystalline Cadmium Zinc Telluride is the only room-temperature solid-state detector that meets the requirements for photon counting imaging. However, the material is grown in small ingots and production costs are high for large-area imaging applications. The problem is that disordered (or non-crystalline) solids, which are easier and less expensive to develop over large-area than single crystalline solids, have been ruled out as viable photon counting detectors because of their poor temporal resolution, or more specifically, extremely low carrier mobilities and transit-time-limited photoresponse. To circumvent the problem of poor charge transport in disordered solids with a conventional planar detector structure, we propose unipolar charge sensing by establishing a strong near-field effect using an electrostatic shield within the material. We introduce the concept of time-differential photoresponse in unipolar solids and show that their temporal resolution can be improved substantially to reach the intrinsic physical limit set by spatial dispersion. Inspired by Charpak's MWPC and its variants, and for the first time, we have implemented an electrostatic shield inside evaporated amorphous selenium (a-Se) using the proposed lithography-based microstrip solid-state detector (MSSD). The fabricated devices are characterized with optical, x-ray, and gamma-ray impulse-like excitations. Using optical time-of-flight (TOF) measurements, we show for the first time a unipolar Gaussian TOF transient from the new MSSD structure, instead of a rectangular response with a Gaussian-integral at the tail which is a typical response of a conventional planar device. The measured optical and x-ray TOF results verify the time-differential property of the electrostatic shield and the practicality of the dispersion-limited photoresponse. Furthermore, we use single gamma-ray photon excitations to probe detector's temporal resolution in pulse mode for photon counting. For the MSSD, we show a depth-independent signal for photon absorption across the bulk and a reduction in signal risetime by a factor of 350, comparing performance limiting factors being hole-dispersion for the MSSD and electron-transit-time for the conventional planar device. The time-differential response obtained from the proposed unipolar detector structure enables disordered photoconductive films to become viable candidates for large-area photon counting applications.

An alternative approach to energy integrating systems is photon counting which provides higher dose efficiency through efficient noise rejection and optimal energy weighting, and, moreover, is not susceptible to memory artifacts such as image lag and ghosting. The first large-area photon counting imager was Charpak's Nobel Prize winning invention of the gas-filled multiwire proportional chamber (MWPC), which revolutionized the field of radiation detection in 1968. In most applications, however, the use of a solid detection medium is preferable because solid densities are about three orders-of-magnitude greater than gas, and thus, they can yield much smaller detector dimensions with unsurpassed spatial and temporal resolution. Thus far, crystalline Cadmium Zinc Telluride is the only room-temperature solid-state detector that meets the requirements for photon counting imaging. However, the material is grown in small ingots and production costs are high for large-area imaging applications. The problem is that disordered (or non-crystalline) solids, which are easier and less expensive to develop over large-area than single crystalline solids, have been ruled out as viable photon counting detectors because of their poor temporal resolution, or more specifically, extremely low carrier mobilities and transit-time-limited photoresponse. To circumvent the problem of poor charge transport in disordered solids with a conventional planar detector structure, we propose unipolar charge sensing by establishing a strong near-field effect using an electrostatic shield within the material. We introduce the concept of time-differential photoresponse in unipolar solids and show that their temporal resolution can be improved substantially to reach the intrinsic physical limit set by spatial dispersion. Inspired by Charpak's MWPC and its variants, and for the first time, we have implemented an electrostatic shield inside evaporated amorphous selenium (a-Se) using the proposed lithography-based microstrip solid-state detector (MSSD). The fabricated devices are characterized with optical, x-ray, and gamma-ray impulse-like excitations. Using optical time-of-flight (TOF) measurements, we show for the first time a unipolar Gaussian TOF transient from the new MSSD structure, instead of a rectangular response with a Gaussian-integral at the tail which is a typical response of a conventional planar device. The measured optical and x-ray TOF results verify the time-differential property of the electrostatic shield and the practicality of the dispersion-limited photoresponse. Furthermore, we use single gamma-ray photon excitations to probe detector's temporal resolution in pulse mode for photon counting. For the MSSD, we show a depth-independent signal for photon absorption across the bulk and a reduction in signal risetime by a factor of 350, comparing performance limiting factors being hole-dispersion for the MSSD and electron-transit-time for the conventional planar device. The time-differential response obtained from the proposed unipolar detector structure enables disordered photoconductive films to become viable candidates for large-area photon counting applications.

Contrast-enhanced mammography (CEM) relies on visualizing the growth of new blood vessels (i.e. tumor angiogenesis) to provide sufficient materials for cell proliferation during the development of cancer. Since cancers will accumulate an injected contrast agent more than other tissues, it is possible to use one of several methods to enhance the area of lesions in the x-ray image and remove the contrast of normal tissue. Large area flat panel detectors may be used for CEM wherein the subtraction of two acquired images is used to create the resulting enhanced image. There exist several methods to acquire the images to be subtracted, which include temporal subtraction (pre- and post-contrast images) and dual-energy subtraction (low- and high-energy images), however these methods suffer from artifacts due to patient motion between image acquisitions. In this research the use of a multilayer flat panel detector is examined for CEM that is designed to acquire both (low- and high-energy) images simultaneously, thus avoiding motion artifacts in the resulting subtracted image. For comparison, a dual-energy technique prone to motion artifacts that uses a single-layer detector is also investigated. Both detectors are evaluated and optimized using amorphous selenium as the x-ray to charge conversion material, however the theoretical analysis could be extended to other conversion materials. Experimental results of single pixel prototypes of both multilayer and single-layer detectors are also discussed and compared to theoretical results. For a more comprehensive analysis, the motion artifacts present in dual-exposure techniques are modeled and the performance degradation due to motion artifacts is estimated. The effects of noise reduction techniques are also evaluated to determine potential image quality improvements in CEM images.

The innovative design of flat panel volume computed tomography (CT) systems has recently led to the emergence of a wide spectrum of new applications for both diagnostic and interventional purposes, such as ultra-high resolution bone imaging, image guided interventions, dynamic CT angiography, and interventional neuroradiology. Most of these applications require low X-ray dose to limit potential harm to the patient. One of the main challenges of low dose imaging is to maintain a quantum noise limited system to achieve the highest possible signal to noise ratio (SNR) at a given dose. One potential method to achieve a quantum noise limited system is to employ a high gain detector. Current flat panel CT technology is based on indirect conversion detectors that contain a scintillator and hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) p-i-n photodetectors which have a gain below unity and require a specialized p-layer. In this thesis, an alternative detector to the p-i-n photodetector, which can achieve gain above unity and thus aid in achieving quantum noise limited systems is investigated for large area flat panel imaging. The proposed detector is based on amorphous selenium (a-Se). Amorphous selenium is the most highly developed photoconductor for large area direct conversion X-ray imaging and is still the only commercially available large area direct conversion flat panel X-ray detector. However, the use of a-Se for indirect conversion imaging has not been significantly explored. Amorphous selenium has field dependent mobility and conversion efficiency, which increase with increasing electric field. It is also the only large area compatible avalanche-capable material; a property that was discovered more than 30 years ago. This unique property could be leveraged to provide the gain necessary for low dose medical imaging applications. The only current commercial avalanche capable a-Se optical detector uses electron beam readout in vacuum, which is not large area compatible and makes integration with pixelated readout electronics challenging. The detector structure proposed in this research seeks to address the challenges associated with integration of an avalanche capable a-Se detector with large area X-ray imager. One important aspect in the development of a-Se avalanche detectors is reducing the dark current and preventing a-Se breakdown as the electric field across the device is increased. A high dark current reduces the dynamic range of the detector, it increases the noise level, and it can lead to crystallization of the detector due to joule heating. To overcome the dark current problem, different blocking layers that allow for integration with large area flat panel imagers were investigated. Experimental results from fabricated devices provided the basis for the choice of the most suitable blocking layer. Two device structures are proposed using the selected blocking layer, a vertical structure and a lateral structure, each having associated benefits and drawbacks. It was shown that introducing a polyimide blocking layer brought down the dark current more than four orders of magnitude at high electric fields and does not deteriorate the charge transport properties of the detectors. The polyimide blocking layer also greatly minimizes physical stress related crystallization in a-Se improving reliability. Gain above unity was observed in the vertical structure and the initiation of impact ionization was verified by performing time-of-flight experiments. Although impact ionization was not verified in the lateral structure, this device structure was found to be highly sensitive to ultraviolet light due to the absence of a top contact layer. Devices were fabricated on several different substrates, including a CMOS substrate, to demonstrate their integration compatibility with large area readout electronics. The exhibited performance of the vertical device structure demonstrates that it is a suitable alternative to the p-i-n photodetector for low dose imaging applications.

In einer initialen Studie verglichen wir das XQi Revolution, welches auf indirektem CsI (Cäsium Iodit) /a: Si (amorphes Silizium) basiert mit einem direkten Digitalröntgengerät a: SE (amorphes Selen) an einem CDRAD-Phantom bei vier unterschiedlichen Eintrittsdosen und an einem TRG-Phantom bei zwei unterschiedlichen Eintrittsdosen. Mittels des berechneten Bildqualitätsfaktors des CDRAD-Phantoms konnten wir zeigen, daß das indirekte im Vergleich zum direkten System bei niedrigeren Dosen eine bessere Detailerkennungsrate aufweist. Ein positiver Trend läßt sich auch beim TRG-Phantom darstellen. In einer weiteren Studie untersuchten wir anhand von Patientenbildern die Bildqualität des Dual Energy Systems bei zwei unterschiedlichen Dosisniveaus, der Standarddosis sowie einer doppelten Dosis, was einem Speed-Äquivalent von 400/1000 bzw. 200/500 entspricht. Bei hoher Dosis konnten wir eine signifikante Reduktion des Rauschens im Knochen- und Weichteilbild feststellen, gleichzeitig nahmen die Störungen durch Bewegungsartefakte signifikant zu. Im Anschluß verglichen wir die Erkennbarkeit verkalkter Lungenpathologien im Standard P/A Bild mit zusätzlichem Einsatz von Dual Energy. Als Goldstandard erfolgte der sichere Nachweis der Pathologien im CT. Bei zusätzlichem Einsatz von Dual Energy konnten wir eine signifikante Steigerung der Sensitivität erkennen. Dieses Ergebnis wurde durch den Qualitätsfaktor, der die Bildeigenschaften kumulativ beschreibt, bestätigt. Weiterhin untersuchten wir analog die Erkennbarkeit von nichtverkalkten Lungenrundherden. Auch bei diesen Pathologien ließ sich ein positiver Trend der Sensitivität und Spezifität bei zusätzlichem Einsatz von Dual Energy erkennen. Zusätzlich stieg die durchschnittliche Entscheidungssicherheit der Gutachter signifikant an. Damit bietet die Dual Energy Subtraktionstechnik eine wertvolle Ergänzung in der Diagnostik verkalkter und nichtverkalkter Lungenpathologien eine wertvolle Ergänzung zum Standardröntgen. / First study assess and quantify the image quality at two dose levels for an amorphous Silicon (a:Si) Cesium Iodide (CsI) flat panel system compared with a direct amorphous Selenium (a:Se) digital radiography system. Image quality of a:Si flat panel digital radiography proved to be superior to a:Se drum digital radiography using low-dose settings. Second study assess the image quality of subtracted soft tissue and bone images of a CsIdetector-based dual-energy system for chest radiography at varying dose levels. Radiation dose did not significantly influence the perception of dual-energy image quality. Next study assess the value of dual-energy chest radiography obtained using a cesium iodide flat-panel detector in addition to standard posteroanterior chest radiography for the detection of calcified chest abnormalities. When dual-energy images were added, sensitivity increased significantly. Brunner and Langer’s test revealed a highly significant difference between posteroanterior chest radiography and dual-energy imaging in the detection of calcified chest abnormalities. Dual-energy images added to standard posteroanterior chest radiographs significantly improve the detection of calcified chest lesions. Last study compare the sensitivity and specificity of digital chest radiography alone with digital chest radiography combined with dual-energy chest radiography in the detection of small non-calcified pulmonary nodules. Standard and dual-energy radiographs were obtained with a flat-panel digital chest system. The increase of nodule detection overall as well as for different size categories was significant. The increase of the confidence level rating was also significant. Dual energy added to standard posteroanterior chest radiography significantly improves the sensitivity, specificity, and confidence in detection of small non-calcified pulmonary nodules. Dual-energy subtraction has the potential to become a future routine application in chest radiography.