Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease with characteristic amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal death in the brain. The major component of amyloid is monomeric amyloid beta (Aβ) protein, as well as its oligomers and large fibrils. Aβ, especially oligomeric Aβ, causes neurotoxicity. The aim of the present study was to investigate how Aβ is metabolized in the presence of microglia cells. We have used a cellular model to study the phagocytosis and degradation of Aβ by BV-2, a murine microglia cell line. We also examined if amylin, a pancreatic peptide, influences the metabolism of Aβ by BV-2 cells. Through Western blot analysis, we observed the phagocytosis of Aβ by BV-2 cells. In our investigation of the role of amylin, we observed a trend in our finding that amylin increased phagocytosis in BV-2 cells and decreased aggregation in the culture medium. Our data demonstrate that amylin may modulate microglia function in the AD brain and has potential to become therapeutic for the disease.

abstract: Vitamin D deficiency has been previously associated with a higher Alzheimer’s disease (AD) risk, a condition marked by dependent living and severe cognitive impairment. AD is histologically defined by the presence of brain amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Ways to enhance Aβ clearance have been examined in order to sustain cognition and delay AD onset. In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that vitamin D might enhance brain Aβ transportation to the periphery by up-regulating P-glycoprotein production. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of vitamin D supplementation on plasma Aβ in an older population. This study was a parallel-arm, double-blinded, randomized control trial. Participants consumed either a vitamin D supplement or placebo once a week for eight weeks (n=23). Only vitamin D insufficient (serum total 25-OH, D < 30 ng/mL) people were included in the study, and all participants were considered to be cognitively normal (MMSE scores > 27). Serum total 25-OH, D and plasma Aβ1-40 measurements were recorded before and after the eight-week trial. The plasma Aβ1-40 change was compared between the vitamin D group and control group. The vitamin D group experienced a 45% greater change in plasma Aβ1-40 than the control group. The effect size was 0.228 when controlling for baseline plasma Aβ1-40 (p=0.045), 0.197 when controlling for baseline plasma Aβ1-40 and baseline physical activity (p=0.085), and 0.179 when controlling for baseline plasma Aβ1-40, baseline physical activity, and age (p=0.116). In conclusion, vitamin D supplementation might increase brain Aβ clearance in humans, but physical activity and age also appear to modulate Aβ metabolism. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Nutrition 2015

abstract: Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease accounting for 50-80% of dementia cases in the country. This disease is characterized by the deposition of extracellular plaques occurring in regions of the brain important for cognitive function. A primary component of these plaques is the amyloid-beta protein. While a natively unfolded protein, amyloid-beta can misfold and aggregate generating a variety of different species including numerous different soluble oligomeric species some of which are precursors to the neurofibrillary plaques. Various of the soluble amyloid-beta oligomeric species have been shown to be toxic to cells and their presence may correlate with progression of AD. Current treatment options target the dementia symptoms, but there is no effective cure or alternative to delay the progression of the disease once it occurs. Amyloid-beta aggregates show up many years before symptoms develop, so detection of various amyloid-beta aggregate species has great promise as an early biomarker for AD. Therefore reagents that can selectively identify key early oligomeric amyloid-beta species have value both as potential diagnostics for early detection of AD and as well as therapeutics that selectively target only the toxic amyloid-beta aggregate species. Earlier work in the lab includes development of several different single chain antibody fragments (scFvs) against different oligomeric amyloid-beta species. This includes isolation of C6 scFv against human AD brain derived oligomeric amyloid-beta (Kasturirangan et al., 2013). This thesis furthers research in this direction by improving the yields and investigating the specificity of modified C6 scFv as a diagnostic for AD. It is motivated by experiments reporting low yields of the C6 scFv. We also used the C6T scFv to characterize the variation in concentration of this particular oligomeric amyloid-beta species with age in a triple transgenic AD mouse model. We also show that C6T can be used to differentiate between post-mortem human AD, Parkinson's disease (PD) and healthy human brain samples. These results indicate that C6T has potential value as a diagnostic tool for early detection of AD. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.S. Biological Design 2013

Age related macular degeneration (AMD) is the most common cause of irreversible vision loss in the elderly. At present, there are an estimated one million people in Canada with some form of AMD and this number is expected to double to two million by 2031. These estimates are sobering, and it is predicted that costs for treatment and care of individuals who suffer vision loss from AMD will have significant impact on the social and public health systems in Canada in the next two decades. There are treatments to slow the progression of vision loss, but unfortunately, there are currently no cures available for AMD. In order to develop effective second generation therapies and cures, further insights into how and why AMD develops are greatly needed. Recent studies have provided novel insights into the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of AMD. Inflammation, or swelling of the retinal tissues, causes harmful processes that promote macular degeneration. The proposed studies will focus on the triggers of inflammation in the retina. It is hypothesized that macular degeneration may be slowed or stopped by eliminating the molecules that cause inflammation in the retina. This study will focus on amyloid beta (Aβ), a toxic molecule that has been implicated in retinal inflammation, and the role that it may play in gene expression of the retinal pigment epithelial cell. Amyloid beta is a well studied peptide in another age related disorder, Alzheimer’s disease. It is the major extracellular deposit in Alzheimer’s disease plaques, and has recently been discovered as a component of drusen, the hallmark extracellular deposits in the retina of patients with the ‘dry’ form of AMD. These studies will allow the development of new treatment regimens that target retinal inflammation and thus minimize the processes that ‘trigger’ the onset of macular degeneration. / Medicine, Faculty of / Graduate

There is an urgent need for the development of new therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase-1A (Dyrk1a) is a protein kinase that phosphorylates the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and tau and thus represents a link between two key proteins involved in AD pathogenesis. Furthermore, Dyrk1a is upregulated in postmortem human brains, and high levels of Dyrk1a are associated with mental retardation. Here, we sought to determine the effects of Dyrk1 inhibition on AD-like pathology developed by 3xTg-AD mice, a widely used animal model of AD. We dosed 10-month-old 3xTg-AD and nontransgenic (NonTg) mice with a Dyrk1 inhibitor (Dyrk1-inh) or vehicle for eight weeks. During the last three weeks of treatment, we tested the mice in a battery of behavioral tests. The brains were then analyzed for the pathological markers of AD. We found that chronic Dyrk1 inhibition reversed cognitive deficits in 3xTg-AD mice. These effects were associated with a reduction in amyloid-beta (Ab) and tau pathology. Mechanistically, Dyrk1 inhibition reduced APP and insoluble tau phosphorylation. The reduction in APP phosphorylation increased its turnover and decreased Ab levels. These results suggest that targeting Dyrk1 could represent a new viable therapeutic approach for AD.

It is widely accepted that A-beta (Aβ) generated from amyloid precursor protein (APP) oligomerizes and fibrillizes to form neuritic plaques in the Alzheimer’s disease (AD) brain, yet little is known about the contribution of APP preceding AD pathogenesis. Our data presented here suggest that APP has a functional role in cell cycle regulation and proliferation. First, we demonstrat that APP is pathologically phosphorylated at Thr668 and that P-APP localizes to the centrosomes. Furthermore, P-APP is proteolytically processed in a cell cycle -dependent manner to generate its pathogenic metabolites. Using Stable Isotope Labeling by Amino Acids in Culture (SILAC) and mass spectrometry analyses, we also show that expression of APP results in the expression of proliferation-associated proteins and the phosphorylation of proteins associated with cell cycle regulation and transcription. Here, we demonstrate that APP expression and oligomeric Aβ42 elicit Ras/ERK signaling cascade and glycogen synthase kinase3 (GSK3) activation. Both ERK and GSK3 are known to induce hyperphosphorylation of tau and of APP at Thr668, and our findings suggest that aberrant signaling by APP facilitates these events. Supporting this notion, analysis of human brain samples show increased expression of Ras, activation of GSK3 and phosphorylation of APP and tau, which correlate with Aβ levels in the AD brains. Furthermore, treatment of primary rat neurons with Aβ recapitulate these events and show enhanced Ras-ERK signaling, GSK3 activation, upregulation of cyclin D1, and phosphorylation of APP and tau. The finding that Aβ induces Thr668 phosphorylation on APP, which we show enhances APP proteolysis and Aβ generation, denotes a vicious feed-forward mechanism by which APP and Aβ promote tau hyperphosphorylation and neurodegeneration in AD. Based on these results we hypothesize that aberrant proliferative signaling by APP plays a fundamental role in AD neurodegeneration and an inhibition of this would impede the mitotic catastrophe and neurodegeneration observed in AD.

The amyloid beta peptide (Aβ) plays an important role in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Increasing evidence suggest that overactivation of extrasynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) mediate Aβ-induced excitotoxicity. In serine racemase knockout (SRKO) mice with significantly depleted D-serine levels, Aβ-induced excitotoxicity is attenuated. Using SRKO mice, this thesis attempts to determine the effects of Aβ on synaptic and extrasynaptic NMDAR function, and how D-serine can alter these Aβ- mediated effects. In CA1 pyramidal neurons, Aβ significantly depresses evoked synaptic NMDAR excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs), and this effect is even greater in SRKO mice. The same effect was also observed on isolated evoked extrasynaptic NMDAR currents. During synaptic NMDAR current recordings, Aβ potentiated the holding current in wild type (WT) mice, but not SRKO mice, suggesting an increase in extrasynaptic NMDAR activation in WT, but not in SRKO mice. SRKO mice attenuated Aβ-induced holding current shift and had reduced basal tonic NMDAR activation. These data, along with evidence from previous studies in the literature, suggest that low levels of D-serine can alter NMDAR function in the presence of Aβ. These findings provide insight for future experiments in exploring the importance of D-serine in AD.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable disease characterized by a slow, progressive decline in cognitive functions as well as the presence of amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Interestingly, two thirds of AD patients are women who have a faster disease progression. Despite this clinical profile, sex differences in AD pathophysiology are largely ignored at the basic and clinical levels. Current therapies provide only mild to moderate improvement in patient symptoms. There is, therefore, an urgent need to expand our understanding of the underlying pathophysiology of AD, and to obtain alternative hypotheses and therapeutics. A recent and promising development involves the sigma-1 receptor (Sig1R), a protein regulated by steroid hormones, which has been implicated in AD. Most interestingly, Sig1R agonists have been shown to ameliorate cognitive deficits in an AD mouse model. Here, we investigated the role of Sig1Rs in an Aβ25-35-infusion mouse model of AD, using behavioural paradigms. Previous studies employing this model have demonstrated Aβ-induced impairments in learning and memory in young male rodents, while no work has been done on females. We examined cognitive function following Aβ25-35 infusion in wild-type and knock-out Sig1R adult male and female mice using the Morris water maze, spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze, and forced alternation in the Y-maze tasks. Overall, the data unexpectedly shows that genotype, Aβ25-35-treatment, and sex had no effect on cognitive functions. These results suggest that additional efforts are required to obtain a working Aβ25-35-infusion model in our Sig1R mice and behavioural tasks. Future experiments will hopefully shed some light on the link between Sig1Rs and AD, which could lead to the development of therapeutics and disease prevention.

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease that affect millions of people worldwide. Aggregation of Amyloid-β (Aβ) monomers create toxic oligomers that can interact with cellular membranes and disturb cellular functions, resulting in cell death and neurological dysfunction. Increased levels of oxidative stress have been shown in the brains of AD patients, something that besides the obvious cell and tissue toxicity, also favors the amyloidogenic pathway and generates more Aβ monomers. Here we show that Edaravone, a free radical scavenger can affect the aggregation rate of different lengths of Aβ. We show that Aβ-40 that is more commonly found in vivo aggregates faster with addition of Edaravone, while Aβ-42 aggregates slower or not at all. These findings add up to previous findings where free radical scavengers and antioxidants such as Edaravone have been suggested as a potential treatment in Alzheimer’s disease.

L’étude des interactions moléculaires au niveau des membranes biologiques est un enjeu capital pour le développement et le screening de nouvelles molécules médicamenteuses. La MA est la forme de démence sénile la plus répandue dans le monde et représente le principal problème socioéconomique en matière de soins de santé. L'apparition et la progression de cette maladie neurodégénérative sont associées à l'agrégation du peptide Aβ.Une stratégie thérapeutique contre la MA consiste à développer des molécules capables d'interférer à des étapes spécifiques de l’agrégation du peptide. Pour les identifier, des méthodes expérimentales sont nécessaires pour suivre et caractériser le peptide Aβ au cours de son processus de fibrillation. Ces méthodes doivent être suffisamment simples pour rester compatibles avec une démarche de drug discovery. Dans le présent travail de thèse, nous avons proposé de combiner des méthodes expérimentales pour permettre une caractérisation multiparamétrique de modulateurs potentiels de la fibrillation du peptide Aβ1-42, en y intégrant des liposomes de composition définie, comme membranes neuronales biomimétiques. Il est en effet établi que les lipides neuronaux sont un facteur important dans la formation des fibres amyloïdes et leur toxicité. Les liposomes ont été formulés par la méthode de réhydratation de film lipidique, et leurs propriétés physico-chimiques caractérisées par RMN, DLS, potentiel ζ.La détermination expérimentale du coefficient de partage de composés d’intérêt a pu être réalisée par spectrophotométrie, y compris de façon originale, par fluorescence, en utilisant ces liposomes, dans des tests miniaturisés. Des études cinétiques de l’agrégation du peptide Aβ1-42 ont été effectuées en présence de liposomes. La fluorescence de la ThT a été mesurée pour suivre la voie de la fibrillation du peptide Aβ, utilisé dans sa forme sauvage ou celle d’un mutant oligomérique, l’oG37C. Une analyse de fuite d’un fluorophore à partir des liposomes, appuyée par des mesures en DLS, a été réalisée afin d'évaluer l'impact des interactions entre le peptide et les membranes pour prévoir tout effet de déstabilisation. Les fibres toxiques formées par Aβ étant principalement organisées en feuillets β, les données ont été corrélées à l'analyse de la structure secondaire du peptide par spectroscopie ATR-FTIR. Après avoir mis en œuvre cette approche sur différentes molécules modèles et un hit d’intérêt potentiel dans le traitement de la MA, l’ensemble de ce travail a abouti à un test multiparamétrique permettant la caractérisation de l’interactome molécules/Aβ/membranes et la discrimination de modulateurs de l'agrégation du peptide Aβ1-42. Cette approche pourra être avantageusement transposée à d'autres maladies amyloïdes. / The study of molecular interactions at the level of biological membranes is a key issue for the screening and the development of new drugs. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of senile dementia in the world and is the leading socio-economic problem in health care. The appearance and progression of this neurodegenerative disease are associated with the aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ). A therapeutic strategy against AD consists in the development of molecules able to interfere with specific steps of Aβ aggregation. To identify such compounds, experimental methods are required to monitor and characterize the Aβ peptide during its fibrillation process. These methods must be simple enough to remain compatible with drug discovery. In this PhD project, we have proposed to combine experimental methods to allow a multiparametric characterization of potential Aβ1-42 fibrillation modulators, by integrating liposomes of defined composition as biomimetic neuronal membranes. It is indeed established that neuronal lipids are an important factor in the formation of amyloid fibers and their toxicity. The liposomes were formulated by the lipid film rehydration method, and their physicochemical properties characterized by NMR, DLS, ζ potential. The experimental determination of the compounds partition coefficient could be carried out by spectrophotometry, including in an original way, by fluorescence, these liposomes, in miniaturized tests. Kinetic studies of Aβ1-42 peptide aggregation were performed in the presence of liposomes.The ThT fluorescence was monitored to follow the Aβ peptide fibrillation pathway, used in its wild form or with an oligomeric mutant, oG37C. A fluorophore leakage analysis from liposomes, supported by DLS measurements, was performed to evaluate the impact of peptide/membranes interactions to predict any destabilization effects. The toxic fibers formed by Aβ being mainly organized in β-sheets, the data were correlated with the analysis of the peptide secondary structure by ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. After the implementation of this approach on different model molecules and a hit of potential interest in the AD treatment, all of this work has resulted in a multiparametric test allowing the molecules/Aβ/membranes interactome characterization and the discrimination of Aβ1-42 peptide aggregation modulators. This approach may be advantageously transposed to other amyloid diseases.