No description available.

No description available.

Os gliomas estão entre os mais freqüentes e fatais tumores do sistema nervoso central. Apesar dos grandes avanços da Medicina nas áreas diagnósticas e terapêuticas, o tratamento desses tumores ainda é, na grande maioria dos casos, paliativo, sendo a extirpação cirúrgica do tumor o único recurso com potencial curativo e, ainda assim, apenas para os gliomas de baixo grau. Neste trabalho, foram analisados os perfis de expressão gênica diferencial entre linhagens de glioma de rato com diferentes graus de tumorigenicidade (linhagens ST1 e P7), visando identificar genes com potencial de aplicação na doença humana como marcadores moleculares e/ou novos alvos terapêuticos. Numa primeira abordagem, foi realizado um rastreamento de genes potencialmente diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7 de glioma de rato através da hibridização de macroarrays de cDNA comerciais. Um conjunto de três membranas comerciais foi hibridizado com alvos radioativos gerados a partir de mRNA obtido destas duas linhagens, totalizando aproximadamente 3.000 genes. Nestes experimentos, foram identificados aproximadamente 200 genes como sendo possivelmente diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7. Os níveis de expressão relativa de cerca de 40 destes genes foram analisados por Northern blot, sendo que seis deles foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem ST1 enquanto que 4 foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem P7. Num segundo momento, foi realizado um rastreamento de expressão gênica em larga escala, através do uso de microarrays de DNA contendo sondas que permitem a análise de expressão de aproximadamente 24.000 transcritos de rato. Esta análise levou à identificação de uma lista contendo aproximadamente 1.300 genes candidatos a diferencialmente expressos, que apresentaram razões de expressão relativa entre 2 e >3.000. Desta lista, -700 genes foram identificados como provavelmente mais expressos na linhagem ST1, e cerca de 500 genes com expressão maior na linhagem P7. A etapa de subseqüente de validação da expressão diferencial foi realizada através de PCR quantitativo em tempo real (Q-PCR). A expressão de 49 genes foi quantificada em quatro preparações independentes de RNA originárias das linhagens ST1 e P7, sendo que 27 destes genes foram identificados como possivelmente diferencialmente expressos através dos microarrays, 10 dos quais haviam sido previamente confirmados por Northern Blot e 12 genes diversos. Destes genes, 21 foram confirmados por Q-PCR como sendo diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7, além daqueles 10 genes cuja expressão diferencial havia sido anteriormente confirmada por Northern. Ao todo, oito genes foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem ST1, e 23 genes o foram como sendo mais expressos na linhagem P7. Vários dos genes confirmados como sendo diferencialmente expressos na linhagem ST1 estão, direta ou indiretamente, relacionados a parada de crescimento e supressão de fenótipo tumoral. Em contrapartida, diversos dos genes confirmados como sendo diferencialmente expressos na linhagem P7 codificam para receptores de fatores de crescimento peptídicos e seus respectivos ligantes. Em particular, foi detectado maior expressão, na linhagem P7, de receptores e Iigantes relacionados ao fatores de crescimento derivados de plaquetas (PDGFs), fatores de crescimento para fibroblastos (FGFs) e, também, do fatores de crescimento da família de pleiotrofina/midquina (PTN/MDK), e seus respectivos receptores. Sabidamente, vários destes genes estão envolvidos na neoangiogênese e na fechamento de alças autócrinas/parácrinas de estímulo da proliferação tumoral, em particular de gliomas humanos. Além disso, estes achados foram coerentes com o maior potencial tumorigênico (-2,5x) apresentado pela linhagem P7, quando injetadas s.c. no dorso de animais imunocomprometidos (p<O,01). As linhagens ST1 e P7 foram originalmente isoladas como sendo sublinhagens derivadas da linhagem C6, cuja origem é donal. Assim, uma possível interpretação para as diferenças marcantes dos perfis de expressão detectadas entre as linhagens ST1 e P7, é de que estas diferenças sejam, mais provavelmente, a conseqüência de algumas poucas alterações moleculares em genes-chave, e não de alterações extensas do genoma celular, uma vez que as duas linhagens têm, a priorí, o mesmo \"background\" genético. Assim, um número limitado de aberrações genéticas adicionais, particulares de cada linhagem, seria suficiente para uma modificação substancial dos perfis de expressão gênica, se os genes alterados forem capazes de modular a expressão de vários outros genes. Na busca de indícios que fortalecessem esta hipótese, foi quantificado, em seis linhagens humanas de glioma, a expressão dos mesmos genes cuja expressão foi originalmente quantificada nas linhagens ST1 e P7. Em seguida, foram realizados testes de correlação em pares (Teste de Pearson) entre os níveis de expressão relativos destes genes para as seis linhagens, buscando identificar conjuntos de genes que apresentassem expressão coordenada, que, por sua vez, sugeririam a existência de possíveis relações regulatórias entre os mesmos. Foi possível observar expressão significativamente correlacionada de seis genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN, PTPRZ1 e SCG2), sugerindo uma possível co-regulação recíproca entre diferentes vias de fatores de crescimento e/ou um novo fator remodelador de cromatina (CHD7). Pararelamente, o gene CHD7 foi, por sua vez, identificado como um novo fator remodelador de cromatina putativo, cujo cDNA completo pode ser amplificado, com êxito, através de RT-PCR longo. A expressão destes mesmos seis genes foi quantificada, por Q-PCR, em 64 amostras clínicas de glioma e cérebro humano não-tumoral. Com exceção do gene SCG2, os demais cinco (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN e PTPRZ1) são significativamente mais expressos em todos os graus de glioma, quando comparados com cérebro humano não-tumoral (p<0,05). Foi possível verificar, inclusive, que os níveis de expressão de vários destes genes estão altamente correlacionados nessas amostras. Em particular, observou-se correlação com alta significância entre os genes CHD7xPDGFRA (p=4,7x10-17), FGF1 xPTN (p=1, 1x10-19), do receptor PTPRZ1 contra todos os demais genes (100-6<p<10-9) e, especificamente, contra seu Iigante PTN (p=1,6x10-14). Como os loci dos genes PTN e PTPRZ1 se encontram relativamente próximos (-15 Mb) numa região do cromossomo 7 humano, a qual frequentemente se encontra amplificada em gliomas humanos (7q), é possível que estes dois genes, codificantes para um fator de crescimento e seu respectivo receptor, façam parte de um novo amplicon em gliomas humanos. Além disso, vários genes com maior expressão na linhagem P7 (ALK, FGFR1, RNF130 e ROS01) estão, também, significativamente mais expressos em certos graus de gliomas humanos, quando comparados com tecido cerebral humano não-tumoral. De um modo geral, estes dados indicam que foi possível obter, a partir de linhagens de glioma de rato, incursões aplicáveis para um entendimento mais amplo da biologia que envolve a patogênese da doença humana. Um destes dados extrapoláveis entre diferentes modelos inter-espécies é que a co-expressão de múltiplas vias autócrinas de crescimento parece ser um achado comum tanto em modelos experimentais de glioma em rato quanto em linhagens e amostras clínicas de gliomas humanos, e que estas vias estão, potencialmente, interconectadas ao nível transcricional. Além disso, foi possível verificar que um novo gene codificante para um fator de remodelamento de cromatina (CHD7), apresenta níveis de expressão relativos muito aumentados em amostras clínicas de glioma, quando comparado com cérebro humano não-tumoral. Analisados em conjunto, os resultados obtidos aqui têm o potencial para conduzir ao desenvolvimento racional de novas estratégias terapêuticas e diagnósticas/prognósticas para gliomas humanos. A análise do papel funcional destes genes em glioma, e das vias moduladas por seus produtos, se constituirá de um passo fundamental para o estabelecimento destes genes como potenciais novos alvos terapêuticos e/ou marcadores moleculares. / Gliomas are among the most frequent and fatal tumors of the central nervous system. Despite the recent and important advances in the diagnostic and therapeutic fields, treatment of these tumors still is, in the vast majority of the cases, palliative. Surgical ressection of the tumor remains as the sole potentially curative resource, but only for the low grade gliomas. In the present work, differential gene expression profiles were analyzed between rat glioma cell lines differing in tumorigenic potential (ST1 and P7 cell lines), aimed at identifying genes with potential to become novel molecular markers and therapeutic targets for the human disease. As a first approach, a commercial macroarray-based screening was undertaken in order to identify differentially expressed genes between ST1 and P7 rat glioma cell lines. Three different sets of commercial membranes comprising 3,000 genes were hybridized against radiolabeled targets that were synthesized from mRNA extracted from both cell lines. As a result, near 2,000 genes were identified as being possibly differentially expressed between ST1 and P7 celllines. The relative expression levels of 40 genes from this list were analyzed by Northern blot, and six genes were successfully confirmed as being expressed at higher levels in the ST1 cell line, whereas four genes confirmed heightened expression in P7 cells. As a second approach, a large-scale, Affymetrix microarray-based screening was performed, which allowed measuring the relative expression levels of about 24,000 rat transcripts. This analysis led to the identification of 1,300 candidate differentially expressed genes, for which the differential expression ratios ranged from 2 up to >3,000. From these, -700 genes displayed preferential expression in the ST1 cell line, while around 500 genes were more expressed in P7 cells. The following step, namely, validation of the differential expression, was achieved through Real-Time PCR (Q-PCR). Expression levels of 49 genes were measured in four independent RNA preparations from ST1 and P7 cell lines. About 27 of these genes were identified as putative differentially expressed , 10 of which had previously been confirmed by Northern blot as differentially expressed and 12 additional genes were also included. From this list, 21 genes were confirmed by Q-PCR as being diferentially expressed between the ST1 and P7 cell lines, in addition to those 10 whose differential expression was confirmed by Northern Slol. In total, eight genes were confirmed as being differentially expressed in the ST1 cell line, and 23 genes were confirmed as being expressed at higher leveis in the P7 cells. Many of the genes confirmed as being differentially expressed genes in the ST1 cell line are, directly or indirectly, related to growth arrest and suppression of the malignant phenotype. On the other hand, several of the genes displaying elevated expression in the P7 cell line code for growth factor ligands and receptors related to the PDGFs (platelet-derived growth factors), FGFs (fibroblast growth factors) and PTN/MDK (pleiotrophin/midkine) growth factor families. Many of these genes are already known as being related to neoangiogenesis and to the establishment of autocrine/paracrine loops in human gliomas. In addition, these findings are in keeping with the significantly higher (p<O.01) tumorigenic potential displayed by the P7 cellline (-2,5x), when both cell lines are injected s.c. in the dorsal region of immunodeficient nude mice. Moreover, ST1 and P7 celllines were originally isolated as clonal celllines from the C6 cell line which, in turn, is also acionai cell line. Therefore, a possible interpretation for the remarkably different gene expression profiles between ST1 and P7 cell lines is that those differences are, most Iikely, a consequence of a few molecular defects in key/master genes, rather than extensive aberrations of the cellular genome, given that those celllines have, a priori, similar genetic backgrounds. Thus, a limited number of genetic aberrations, characterisitic of each cell line, would be sufficient for a substantial modification of the gene expression profiles, provided that the altered genes are able to modulate the expression of each other. In an attempt to investigate theis point, the relative expression levels of the same genes were analyzed by Q-PCR, and pairwise correlation tests (Pearson correlation tests) were performed using expression data from the six human glioma cell lines, aimed at identifying gene sets that displayed coordinate expression whichwould suggest the existence of putative regulatory loops among them. It was possible to identify a c1uster of six genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN, PTPRZ1, SCG2) that displays coregulated expression, thus suggesting a possible reciprocal co-regulation among distinct growth factor pathways and a putative chromatin remodeling factor (CHD7). Furthermore, the CHD7 gene was identified as a novel, putative chromatin remodeling factor, and its full-Iength cDNA could be successfully amplified by means of long RTPCR. The expression levels of the same genes was quantified, by Q-PCR, in 64 clinicai samples, comprising gliomas and non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Except for the SCG2 gene, the remaining five genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN and PTPRZ1) were expressed at significantly higher levels in glioma samples of all grades, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples (p<O.05). Likewise, we were able to verify that expression levels for many of these genes are strictly correlated in those samples. A particularly high levei of significance was found for the correlation of expression levels between CHD7xPDGFRA (p=4.7x10-17) and also for the FGF1xPTN gene pair (p=1.1x10-19). A strikingly high level of significance (p=1.6x10-14) was also found for the expression levels between the PTPRZ1 receptor and its PTN ligand. Given that the PTN and PTPRZ1 loei are relatively close to each other (-15 Mb) on the long arm of human chromosome 7, which, in turn, is frequently amplified in human gliomas, the genomic region including these two genes may well constitute a novel amplicon in human gliomas. In addition, several other genes with higher expression in the P7 cell line (ALK, FGFR1, RNF130 and ROB01) are also expressed at significantly higher levels in certain glioma grades, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Overall, these data indicate that starting from the rat glioma cell lines model, it was possible to obtain, insights applicable to a better understanding of the biology underlying the pathogenesis of human gliomas. Thus, co-expression of multiple autocrine loops seems to be a commonplace in the rat experimental glioma models as well as in the human glioma cell lines and in clinicai samples, where these pathways are potentially interconnected at the transcriptional leveI. Furthermore, we were able to detect increased mRNA expression levels of a novel putative chromatin remodelling factor (CHD7) in human glioma tissue samples, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Taken together, the results obtained in this work may potentially lead to the rational development of novel therapeutic, diagnostic and prognostic strategies for human gliomas. Functional analysis of these genes in glioma, and the pathways modulated by their products, will be a fundamental step for the establishment of these genes as potentially novel therapeutic targets and/or molecular markers.

Os gliomas estão entre os mais freqüentes e fatais tumores do sistema nervoso central. Apesar dos grandes avanços da Medicina nas áreas diagnósticas e terapêuticas, o tratamento desses tumores ainda é, na grande maioria dos casos, paliativo, sendo a extirpação cirúrgica do tumor o único recurso com potencial curativo e, ainda assim, apenas para os gliomas de baixo grau. Neste trabalho, foram analisados os perfis de expressão gênica diferencial entre linhagens de glioma de rato com diferentes graus de tumorigenicidade (linhagens ST1 e P7), visando identificar genes com potencial de aplicação na doença humana como marcadores moleculares e/ou novos alvos terapêuticos. Numa primeira abordagem, foi realizado um rastreamento de genes potencialmente diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7 de glioma de rato através da hibridização de macroarrays de cDNA comerciais. Um conjunto de três membranas comerciais foi hibridizado com alvos radioativos gerados a partir de mRNA obtido destas duas linhagens, totalizando aproximadamente 3.000 genes. Nestes experimentos, foram identificados aproximadamente 200 genes como sendo possivelmente diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7. Os níveis de expressão relativa de cerca de 40 destes genes foram analisados por Northern blot, sendo que seis deles foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem ST1 enquanto que 4 foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem P7. Num segundo momento, foi realizado um rastreamento de expressão gênica em larga escala, através do uso de microarrays de DNA contendo sondas que permitem a análise de expressão de aproximadamente 24.000 transcritos de rato. Esta análise levou à identificação de uma lista contendo aproximadamente 1.300 genes candidatos a diferencialmente expressos, que apresentaram razões de expressão relativa entre 2 e >3.000. Desta lista, -700 genes foram identificados como provavelmente mais expressos na linhagem ST1, e cerca de 500 genes com expressão maior na linhagem P7. A etapa de subseqüente de validação da expressão diferencial foi realizada através de PCR quantitativo em tempo real (Q-PCR). A expressão de 49 genes foi quantificada em quatro preparações independentes de RNA originárias das linhagens ST1 e P7, sendo que 27 destes genes foram identificados como possivelmente diferencialmente expressos através dos microarrays, 10 dos quais haviam sido previamente confirmados por Northern Blot e 12 genes diversos. Destes genes, 21 foram confirmados por Q-PCR como sendo diferencialmente expressos entre as linhagens ST1 e P7, além daqueles 10 genes cuja expressão diferencial havia sido anteriormente confirmada por Northern. Ao todo, oito genes foram confirmados como sendo mais expressos na linhagem ST1, e 23 genes o foram como sendo mais expressos na linhagem P7. Vários dos genes confirmados como sendo diferencialmente expressos na linhagem ST1 estão, direta ou indiretamente, relacionados a parada de crescimento e supressão de fenótipo tumoral. Em contrapartida, diversos dos genes confirmados como sendo diferencialmente expressos na linhagem P7 codificam para receptores de fatores de crescimento peptídicos e seus respectivos ligantes. Em particular, foi detectado maior expressão, na linhagem P7, de receptores e Iigantes relacionados ao fatores de crescimento derivados de plaquetas (PDGFs), fatores de crescimento para fibroblastos (FGFs) e, também, do fatores de crescimento da família de pleiotrofina/midquina (PTN/MDK), e seus respectivos receptores. Sabidamente, vários destes genes estão envolvidos na neoangiogênese e na fechamento de alças autócrinas/parácrinas de estímulo da proliferação tumoral, em particular de gliomas humanos. Além disso, estes achados foram coerentes com o maior potencial tumorigênico (-2,5x) apresentado pela linhagem P7, quando injetadas s.c. no dorso de animais imunocomprometidos (p<O,01). As linhagens ST1 e P7 foram originalmente isoladas como sendo sublinhagens derivadas da linhagem C6, cuja origem é donal. Assim, uma possível interpretação para as diferenças marcantes dos perfis de expressão detectadas entre as linhagens ST1 e P7, é de que estas diferenças sejam, mais provavelmente, a conseqüência de algumas poucas alterações moleculares em genes-chave, e não de alterações extensas do genoma celular, uma vez que as duas linhagens têm, a priorí, o mesmo \"background\" genético. Assim, um número limitado de aberrações genéticas adicionais, particulares de cada linhagem, seria suficiente para uma modificação substancial dos perfis de expressão gênica, se os genes alterados forem capazes de modular a expressão de vários outros genes. Na busca de indícios que fortalecessem esta hipótese, foi quantificado, em seis linhagens humanas de glioma, a expressão dos mesmos genes cuja expressão foi originalmente quantificada nas linhagens ST1 e P7. Em seguida, foram realizados testes de correlação em pares (Teste de Pearson) entre os níveis de expressão relativos destes genes para as seis linhagens, buscando identificar conjuntos de genes que apresentassem expressão coordenada, que, por sua vez, sugeririam a existência de possíveis relações regulatórias entre os mesmos. Foi possível observar expressão significativamente correlacionada de seis genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN, PTPRZ1 e SCG2), sugerindo uma possível co-regulação recíproca entre diferentes vias de fatores de crescimento e/ou um novo fator remodelador de cromatina (CHD7). Pararelamente, o gene CHD7 foi, por sua vez, identificado como um novo fator remodelador de cromatina putativo, cujo cDNA completo pode ser amplificado, com êxito, através de RT-PCR longo. A expressão destes mesmos seis genes foi quantificada, por Q-PCR, em 64 amostras clínicas de glioma e cérebro humano não-tumoral. Com exceção do gene SCG2, os demais cinco (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN e PTPRZ1) são significativamente mais expressos em todos os graus de glioma, quando comparados com cérebro humano não-tumoral (p<0,05). Foi possível verificar, inclusive, que os níveis de expressão de vários destes genes estão altamente correlacionados nessas amostras. Em particular, observou-se correlação com alta significância entre os genes CHD7xPDGFRA (p=4,7x10-17), FGF1 xPTN (p=1, 1x10-19), do receptor PTPRZ1 contra todos os demais genes (100-6<p<10-9) e, especificamente, contra seu Iigante PTN (p=1,6x10-14). Como os loci dos genes PTN e PTPRZ1 se encontram relativamente próximos (-15 Mb) numa região do cromossomo 7 humano, a qual frequentemente se encontra amplificada em gliomas humanos (7q), é possível que estes dois genes, codificantes para um fator de crescimento e seu respectivo receptor, façam parte de um novo amplicon em gliomas humanos. Além disso, vários genes com maior expressão na linhagem P7 (ALK, FGFR1, RNF130 e ROS01) estão, também, significativamente mais expressos em certos graus de gliomas humanos, quando comparados com tecido cerebral humano não-tumoral. De um modo geral, estes dados indicam que foi possível obter, a partir de linhagens de glioma de rato, incursões aplicáveis para um entendimento mais amplo da biologia que envolve a patogênese da doença humana. Um destes dados extrapoláveis entre diferentes modelos inter-espécies é que a co-expressão de múltiplas vias autócrinas de crescimento parece ser um achado comum tanto em modelos experimentais de glioma em rato quanto em linhagens e amostras clínicas de gliomas humanos, e que estas vias estão, potencialmente, interconectadas ao nível transcricional. Além disso, foi possível verificar que um novo gene codificante para um fator de remodelamento de cromatina (CHD7), apresenta níveis de expressão relativos muito aumentados em amostras clínicas de glioma, quando comparado com cérebro humano não-tumoral. Analisados em conjunto, os resultados obtidos aqui têm o potencial para conduzir ao desenvolvimento racional de novas estratégias terapêuticas e diagnósticas/prognósticas para gliomas humanos. A análise do papel funcional destes genes em glioma, e das vias moduladas por seus produtos, se constituirá de um passo fundamental para o estabelecimento destes genes como potenciais novos alvos terapêuticos e/ou marcadores moleculares. / Gliomas are among the most frequent and fatal tumors of the central nervous system. Despite the recent and important advances in the diagnostic and therapeutic fields, treatment of these tumors still is, in the vast majority of the cases, palliative. Surgical ressection of the tumor remains as the sole potentially curative resource, but only for the low grade gliomas. In the present work, differential gene expression profiles were analyzed between rat glioma cell lines differing in tumorigenic potential (ST1 and P7 cell lines), aimed at identifying genes with potential to become novel molecular markers and therapeutic targets for the human disease. As a first approach, a commercial macroarray-based screening was undertaken in order to identify differentially expressed genes between ST1 and P7 rat glioma cell lines. Three different sets of commercial membranes comprising 3,000 genes were hybridized against radiolabeled targets that were synthesized from mRNA extracted from both cell lines. As a result, near 2,000 genes were identified as being possibly differentially expressed between ST1 and P7 celllines. The relative expression levels of 40 genes from this list were analyzed by Northern blot, and six genes were successfully confirmed as being expressed at higher levels in the ST1 cell line, whereas four genes confirmed heightened expression in P7 cells. As a second approach, a large-scale, Affymetrix microarray-based screening was performed, which allowed measuring the relative expression levels of about 24,000 rat transcripts. This analysis led to the identification of 1,300 candidate differentially expressed genes, for which the differential expression ratios ranged from 2 up to >3,000. From these, -700 genes displayed preferential expression in the ST1 cell line, while around 500 genes were more expressed in P7 cells. The following step, namely, validation of the differential expression, was achieved through Real-Time PCR (Q-PCR). Expression levels of 49 genes were measured in four independent RNA preparations from ST1 and P7 cell lines. About 27 of these genes were identified as putative differentially expressed , 10 of which had previously been confirmed by Northern blot as differentially expressed and 12 additional genes were also included. From this list, 21 genes were confirmed by Q-PCR as being diferentially expressed between the ST1 and P7 cell lines, in addition to those 10 whose differential expression was confirmed by Northern Slol. In total, eight genes were confirmed as being differentially expressed in the ST1 cell line, and 23 genes were confirmed as being expressed at higher leveis in the P7 cells. Many of the genes confirmed as being differentially expressed genes in the ST1 cell line are, directly or indirectly, related to growth arrest and suppression of the malignant phenotype. On the other hand, several of the genes displaying elevated expression in the P7 cell line code for growth factor ligands and receptors related to the PDGFs (platelet-derived growth factors), FGFs (fibroblast growth factors) and PTN/MDK (pleiotrophin/midkine) growth factor families. Many of these genes are already known as being related to neoangiogenesis and to the establishment of autocrine/paracrine loops in human gliomas. In addition, these findings are in keeping with the significantly higher (p<O.01) tumorigenic potential displayed by the P7 cellline (-2,5x), when both cell lines are injected s.c. in the dorsal region of immunodeficient nude mice. Moreover, ST1 and P7 celllines were originally isolated as clonal celllines from the C6 cell line which, in turn, is also acionai cell line. Therefore, a possible interpretation for the remarkably different gene expression profiles between ST1 and P7 cell lines is that those differences are, most Iikely, a consequence of a few molecular defects in key/master genes, rather than extensive aberrations of the cellular genome, given that those celllines have, a priori, similar genetic backgrounds. Thus, a limited number of genetic aberrations, characterisitic of each cell line, would be sufficient for a substantial modification of the gene expression profiles, provided that the altered genes are able to modulate the expression of each other. In an attempt to investigate theis point, the relative expression levels of the same genes were analyzed by Q-PCR, and pairwise correlation tests (Pearson correlation tests) were performed using expression data from the six human glioma cell lines, aimed at identifying gene sets that displayed coordinate expression whichwould suggest the existence of putative regulatory loops among them. It was possible to identify a c1uster of six genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN, PTPRZ1, SCG2) that displays coregulated expression, thus suggesting a possible reciprocal co-regulation among distinct growth factor pathways and a putative chromatin remodeling factor (CHD7). Furthermore, the CHD7 gene was identified as a novel, putative chromatin remodeling factor, and its full-Iength cDNA could be successfully amplified by means of long RTPCR. The expression levels of the same genes was quantified, by Q-PCR, in 64 clinicai samples, comprising gliomas and non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Except for the SCG2 gene, the remaining five genes (CHD7, FGF1, PDGFRA, PTN and PTPRZ1) were expressed at significantly higher levels in glioma samples of all grades, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples (p<O.05). Likewise, we were able to verify that expression levels for many of these genes are strictly correlated in those samples. A particularly high levei of significance was found for the correlation of expression levels between CHD7xPDGFRA (p=4.7x10-17) and also for the FGF1xPTN gene pair (p=1.1x10-19). A strikingly high level of significance (p=1.6x10-14) was also found for the expression levels between the PTPRZ1 receptor and its PTN ligand. Given that the PTN and PTPRZ1 loei are relatively close to each other (-15 Mb) on the long arm of human chromosome 7, which, in turn, is frequently amplified in human gliomas, the genomic region including these two genes may well constitute a novel amplicon in human gliomas. In addition, several other genes with higher expression in the P7 cell line (ALK, FGFR1, RNF130 and ROB01) are also expressed at significantly higher levels in certain glioma grades, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Overall, these data indicate that starting from the rat glioma cell lines model, it was possible to obtain, insights applicable to a better understanding of the biology underlying the pathogenesis of human gliomas. Thus, co-expression of multiple autocrine loops seems to be a commonplace in the rat experimental glioma models as well as in the human glioma cell lines and in clinicai samples, where these pathways are potentially interconnected at the transcriptional leveI. Furthermore, we were able to detect increased mRNA expression levels of a novel putative chromatin remodelling factor (CHD7) in human glioma tissue samples, when compared to non-tumoral human brain tissue samples. Taken together, the results obtained in this work may potentially lead to the rational development of novel therapeutic, diagnostic and prognostic strategies for human gliomas. Functional analysis of these genes in glioma, and the pathways modulated by their products, will be a fundamental step for the establishment of these genes as potentially novel therapeutic targets and/or molecular markers.

Le lymphome diffus à grandes cellules B (DLBCL, Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma) constitue le lymphome non Hodgkinien le plus fréquemment diagnostiqué. Les DLBCL sont composés principalement de deux sous groupes : l’entité nommée ABC (Activated B Cell-like) qui est la plus agressive, avec un taux de survie de 30% après traitement, et l’entité GCB (Germinal-Center B Cell). Contrairement aux GCB DLBCL, les ABC DLBCL se caractérisent par une signature génique similaire aux lymphocytes B activés par leur récepteur antigénique (BCR, B Cell Receptor) à cause de l'accumulation de mutations génétiques. Ceci a pour conséquence une activation constitutive du facteur de transcription NF-κB pour laquelle les lymphomes ABC DLBCL ont développé une profonde addiction. Toutefois, la nature pléiotrope de NF-κB rend son ciblage thérapeutique inenvisageable. Mon projet de thèse visait à caractériser de nouveaux régulateurs de la voie d’activation du facteur NF-κB par les récepteurs antigéniques en condition physiologique et pathologique. Dans un premier temps, grâce à un crible protéomique par spectrométrie de masse, nous avons identifié un complexe ternaire nommé LUBAC (Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex) comme un acteur majeur de l’activation de NF-κB par le TCR et le BCR, et de la survie des lymphomes ABC DLBCL. Dans un second temps, le crible d’une librairie de mille deux cents molécules chimiques nous a permis d’isoler un composé sélectivement toxique in vitro pour les lymphomes ABC DLBCL. Nous montrons que ce composé entraine la mort apoptotique des ABC DLBCL sans toutefois affecter la signalisation NF-κB. Un tel composé pourrait, dans le futur, être utilisé comme une nouvelle molécule thérapeutique pour le traitement du lymphome ABC DLBCL. / The diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common non Hodgkinien lymphoma. Two main different entities composed the DLBCL : the Activated B Cell-like subtype (ABC DLBCL) witch is the most aggressive and associated with a poor survival prognostic, and the Germinal-Center B Cell subtype (GCB DLBCL). Unlike the GCB DLBCL, ABC DLBCL are characterized by a genetic signature similar to activated B lymphocytes stimulated by their antigen receptor (BCR, B cell receptor) which results from mutations accumulation. As a consequence, ABC DLBCL survival and proliferation requires the constitutive activation of NF-κB transcription factors. Because NF-κB has pleiotropic effect on different tissues, strategies aiming at targeting NF-κB heterodimers might have deleterious consequences on an organism.My project focuses on identifying new modulators involved in antigen receptor mediated NF-κB activation in physiological and pathological condition.We first performed a mass spectrometry analysis and identified the LUBAC (Linear Ubiquitin Chain Assembly Complex) as a new regulator of antigen receptor mediated a NF-κB ctivation and ABC DLBCL survival. Then, we screened a library of one thousand two hundred chemical compounds on DLBCL viability and identified one compound selectively toxic in vitro for the ABC DLBCL subtype. This compound induced ABC DLBCL apoptosis without affected NF-κB signaling. In the future, this compound could be used as a new therapeutic compound for ABC DLBCL.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common malignant brain cancer that invades normal brain tissue and impedes surgical eradication, resulting in early local recurrence and high mortality. In addition, most therapeutic agents lack permeability across the blood brain barrier (BBB), further reducing the efficacy of chemotherapy. Thus, effective treatment against GBM requires tumor specific targets and efficient intracranial drug delivery. With the most recent advances in immunotherapy, genetically engineered T cells with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) are becoming a promising approach for treating cancer. By transducing T lymphocytes with CAR constructs containing a tumor-associated antigen (TAA) recognition domain linked to the constant regions of a signaling T cell receptor, CAR T cells may recognize a predefined TAA with high specificity in a non-MHC restricted manner, and is independent of antigen processing. Active T cells can travel across the BBB, providing additional advantage for drug delivery and tumor targeting. Here we review the CAR design and technical innovations, the major targets that are in pre-clinical and clinical development with a focus on GBM, and multiple strategies developed to improve CAR T cell efficacy.

T lymphocytes engineered with chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) have shown remarkable success in the treatment of leukemias. Conventional CARs seek to recapitulate TCR and costimulatory signals through fusion of T cell signaling elements into a single receptor. The robust anti-tumor activity of CAR T cells is often accompanied by debilitating toxicities due to excessive T cell activation and cytokine production following infusion. Our lab has generated a novel chimeric receptor termed T cell antigen coupler (TAC), which is designed to engage native T cell signaling domains for cellular activation. In a murine xenograft model, we previously found that TAC T cells mediated rapid tumour regression in the absence of toxicities. Comparatively, CAR T cells elicited significant lethal toxicities to the mice due to reactivity against an unspecific antigen that resulted in excessive proliferation and cytokine production in vivo. Here, we report that TAC and CAR T cells have fundamentally different biology, both at rest, and during activation. TAC T cells were more sensitive to the context of stimulation compared to CAR T cells. Whereas TAC T cells can discriminate between antigen bound to a bead, or antigen present on a cell, CAR T cells do not make the same distinction and responds equally well to both. Compared to several different CAR constructs, TAC T cells are less prone to tonic signaling and T cell differentiation in the absence of antigen. These findings support that TAC T cells may pose a safety benefit as a cancer immunotherapy, due to its distinct biology from CAR T cells that enables them to require more stringent contexts for activation. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / Cytotoxic T cells are also known as “resident killer” cells of the immune system, as they can seek and eliminate diseased or infected tissue, including cancer cells. However, cancer cells can evade elimination by T cells over time. Genetic engineering of T cells allows us to re-arm T cells against cancer cells. T cells isolated from a patient are genetically modified to recognize cancer cells specifically. So far, these modified T cells have been successful against several leukemias. However, the side effects of this treatment can be substantial and life-threatening, due to the massive reaction of the T cells against the cancer cells following infusion. We explore the biology of two different types of engineered T cells to better understand the interaction between T cell and tumour cell. Our results aim towards mitigating the side effects of T cell treatment, while investigating how we can improve its effectiveness for the future.

Immunotherapy for cancer is a young research field progressing at high speed. The first chimera of an antibody and a signaling chain was designed by Zelig Eshhar and was later further developed to enhance existing T cell therapy by combining a single-chain fragment of an antibody with the CD3 zeta chain of the TCR complex. T cells expressing these chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) could recognize and specifically kill tumor cells. However the T cells, lacked in persistence and tumor rejection did not occur. Thus, the CAR constructs have been improved by providing the T cell with costimulatory signals promoting activation. The focus of this thesis has been to evaluate second and third generation αCD19-CAR T cells for the treatment of B cell leukemia and lymphoma. B cell tumors commonly upregulate anti-apoptotic proteins such as Bcl-2, which generates therapy resistance. In the first paper a second generation (2G) αCD19-CD28-CAR T cell was combined with the Bcl-2 family inhibitor ABT-737. ABT-737 sensitized tumor cells to CAR T cell therapy and may be an interesting clinical combination treatment. In paper II, the phenotype and function of a third generation (3G) αCD19-CD28-4-1BB-CAR T cell were evaluated. B cell-stimulated CAR T cells showed increased proliferation and an antigen-driven accumulation of CAR+ T cells. 3G CAR T cells had equal cytotoxic capacity, similar lineage, memory and exhaustion profile phenotype compared to 2G CARs. However, 3G CAR T cells proliferated better and had increased activation of intracellular signaling pathways compared to 2G CAR T cells. In paper III, αCD19-CD28-4-1BB-CAR T cells were used to stimulate immature dendritic cells leading to an upregulation of maturation markers on co-cultured dendritic cells. Hence, CAR T cells may not only directly kill the tumor cells, but may induce bystander immunity that indirectly aids tumor control. This thesis also include supplementary information about the development and implementation of protocols for GMP production of CAR T cell batches for a phase I/IIa clinical trial currently ongoing for patients with refractory B cell leukemia and lymphoma. So far, two patients have safely been treated on the lowest dose.

Helmintos e seus produtos são potentes moduladores da resposta imune. Componentes de alta massa molecular do extrato de Ascaris suum (PI) suprimem a resposta anti-ovalbumina. Nas células apresentadoras de antígeno (APCs) como as dendríticas (DCs) os componentes do PI inibem a expressão de moléculas MHC-II e coestimuladoras e, assim a ativação de linfócitos TCD4+. Receptores de membrana de APCs como os do tipo Toll (TLRs) e lectina tipo-C (CLRs) reconhecem padrões moleculares de patógenos e modulam a resposta imune efetora. Assim sendo, foi estudada o papel de TLRs e CLRs expressos nas APCs na supressão induzida por PI. Pôde-se observar que o PI inibe a expressão de TLR1, 2 e 4 na fase de indução da resposta adaptativa. O efeito supressor do PI na resposta anti-OVA e na maturação de DCs é independente de TLR2 e 4, entretanto os CLRs parecem estar envolvidos nesse processo. Portanto, estes dados podem contribuir no esclarecimento dos mecanismos de ação de substâncias imunossupressoras. / Helminths and antigens derived from them are potent immunemodulators. High molecular weight components of Ascaris suum extract (PI) suppress the anti-ovalbumin response. The PI components inhibit in antigen-presenting cells (APCs), as dendritic cells (DCs), the expression of MHC-II and coestimulatory molecules and, thus the CD4 + T cells activation. APCs via membrane receptors, as the Toll like (TLRs) and C-type lectin (CLRs), recognize distinct pathogens and then promote the effector immune response. Therefore, it was studied the role of TLRs and CLRs expressed on APCs in immunesuppression induced by PI. It was observed that PI inhibited the expression of TLR1, 2, 4 and 9 in the induction phase of adaptive response. The suppressive effect of PI in anti-OVA response and DCs maturation was independent of TLR2 and TLR4, however the CLRs seem to be involved in this process. These data can contribute to clarify the action mechanisms of immunosuppressive molecules.

Helmintos e seus produtos são potentes moduladores da resposta imune. Componentes de alta massa molecular do extrato de Ascaris suum (PI) suprimem a resposta anti-ovalbumina. Nas células apresentadoras de antígeno (APCs) como as dendríticas (DCs) os componentes do PI inibem a expressão de moléculas MHC-II e coestimuladoras e, assim a ativação de linfócitos TCD4+. Receptores de membrana de APCs como os do tipo Toll (TLRs) e lectina tipo-C (CLRs) reconhecem padrões moleculares de patógenos e modulam a resposta imune efetora. Assim sendo, foi estudada o papel de TLRs e CLRs expressos nas APCs na supressão induzida por PI. Pôde-se observar que o PI inibe a expressão de TLR1, 2 e 4 na fase de indução da resposta adaptativa. O efeito supressor do PI na resposta anti-OVA e na maturação de DCs é independente de TLR2 e 4, entretanto os CLRs parecem estar envolvidos nesse processo. Portanto, estes dados podem contribuir no esclarecimento dos mecanismos de ação de substâncias imunossupressoras. / Helminths and antigens derived from them are potent immunemodulators. High molecular weight components of Ascaris suum extract (PI) suppress the anti-ovalbumin response. The PI components inhibit in antigen-presenting cells (APCs), as dendritic cells (DCs), the expression of MHC-II and coestimulatory molecules and, thus the CD4 + T cells activation. APCs via membrane receptors, as the Toll like (TLRs) and C-type lectin (CLRs), recognize distinct pathogens and then promote the effector immune response. Therefore, it was studied the role of TLRs and CLRs expressed on APCs in immunesuppression induced by PI. It was observed that PI inhibited the expression of TLR1, 2, 4 and 9 in the induction phase of adaptive response. The suppressive effect of PI in anti-OVA response and DCs maturation was independent of TLR2 and TLR4, however the CLRs seem to be involved in this process. These data can contribute to clarify the action mechanisms of immunosuppressive molecules.