Throughout the long nineteenth century, the European Great Powers and, after 1865, the United States competed for global dominance, and they regularly used their armies to do so. While many historians have commented on the culture of these armies’ officer corps, few have looked to the acculturation process itself that occurred at secondary schools and academies for future officers, and even fewer have compared different formative systems. In this study, I home in on three distinct models of officer acculturation—the British public schools, the monarchical cadet schools in Imperial Germany, Austria, and Russia, and the US Military Academy—which instilled the shared and recursive sets of values and behaviors that constituted European and American officer cultures. Specifically, I examine not the curricula, policies, and structures of the schools but the subterranean practices, rituals, and codes therein. What were they, how and why did they develop and change over time, which values did they transmit and which behaviors did they perpetuate, how do these relate to nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century social and cultural phenomena, and what sort of ethos did they produce among transatlantic army officers? Drawing on a wide array of sources in three languages, including archival material, official publications, letters and memoirs, and contemporary nonfiction and fiction, I have painted a highly detailed picture of subterranean life at the institutions in this study. The reader will find that although practices, rituals, and codes varied from one type of school to the next, the values and behaviors they inculcated were quite similar . . . and quite anachronistic for the liberalizing societies that the products of the schools were meant to serve.

Thesis (PhD (School of Public Management and Planning ))—University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Since 1994, education and training in South Africa has experienced various changes, driven mainly by the Green Paper on Skills Development and the White Paper on Education which set objectives and outcomes and gave guidelines on how education and training should be approached, planned, and managed. The White Paper on Education necessitated change in SA tertiary institutions such as Stellenbosch University and its respective faculties. The Faculty of Military Science, which is situated at the South African Military Academy (SAMA) in Saldanha, accepted the challenge of contributing to the full personal development of students, by undertaking to shape people capable of organising and managing themselves and their human activities, including their financial activities, responsibly and effectively. The success of higher education institutions in empowering young people to be financially capable is questioned by various publications and surveys. Preliminary findings from surveys in 2004 and 2005 among students at the SAMA suggest that they are largely financially illiterate, thus potentially economically volatile. These findings introduce the research problem and serve as a foundation for the development of a scientific, socially relevant, valid and reliable financial literacy measurement instrument. A combined qualitative and quantitative research methodology is applied to develop a measurement instrument, which is then assessed for validity and reliability by applying it in a case study. The secondary objective of this research is the social study of the financial knowledge, financial behaviour and financial attitude levels of individuals. To ensure relevance between the case study and the measurement instrument, financial literacy is initially evaluated as a management competency. Financial literacy is stated as a key competency in the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). The financial literacy measurement instrument was constructed after an exploration of the contextual and conceptual nature of financial literacy. A questionnaire was selected as the ideal method of gathering the required information. The questionnaire’s validity and reliability were assessed as part of descriptive research in the development phase, as well as in the case study. The face and content validity were proven through input from respondents and subject experts. Reliability of the measurement instrument was assessed by calculating item difficulty, item discrimination, means, standard deviations and ultimately the internal consistency of the financial knowledge, behaviour and attitude sections of the measurement instrument. In the case study first-year students achieved an average of 50.17% for their financial knowledge although they rated their own knowledge levels to be 60.8%. The respondents struggled most with questions pertaining to investment, insurance, and inflation, and least with retirement and income and expenditure questions. This research underlines the importance of financial literacy as a management competency and its importance at a global, national, organisational and personal level. It produces a valid and reliable financial literacy measurement instrument that can be used by different stakeholders in South Africa to assess financial knowledge, behaviour and attitude, and thus indicate where intervention is required. Having a valid and reliable measurement instrument for measuring financial literacy creates opportunity for future research and development. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sedert 1994 het die opvoeding- en opleidingsteater in Suid-Afrika dramatiese veranderinge ondergaan met veral die die Groenskrif op Vaardigheidsontwikkeling en die Witskrif op Opvoeding, wat die doelwitte en uitkomste gestel het en die toon aangegee het in terme van hoe opvoeding en opleiding aangepak, beplan en bestuur behoort te word. Verandering genoodsaak deur die Witskrif op Opvoeding sou by assosiasie ook verandering noodsaak in SA tersiêre inrigtings soos Stellenbosch Universiteit en haar fakulteite. Die Fakulteit Krygskunde, gevestig by die Suid-Afrkaanse Millitêre Akademie (SAMA) in Saldanha, het die uitdaging aanvaar om by te dra tot die totale persoonlike ontwikkeling van studente deur te onderneem om mense te vorm wat in staat sal wees om hulself en hul aktiwiteite verantwoordelik en doeltreffend te bestuur, insluitend hul finansiële aktiwiteite. Hoër Onderwys se sukses met die bemagtiging van jong mense tot finansieel vaardige individue is deur verskeie navorsingsverslae bevraagteken. Voorlopige bevindinge van studies in 2004 en 2005 onder voograadse studente van die SAMA is dat hulle grootliks finansieel ongeletterd is en gevolglik ekonomies kwesbaar. Die bevindinge is die vertrekpunt van die probleemstelling vir hierdie studie, en vorm die basis vir die ontwikkeling van 'n wetenskaplik- en sosiaalrelevante, geldige en betroubare finansiële geletterdheidsmetingsinstrument. 'n Gekombineerde kwalitatiefkwantitatiewe navorsingsmetodologie is toegepas in die ontwikkeling van 'n metingsinstrument, en die verbandhoudende bepaling van sy geldigheid en betroubaarheid deur die toepassing daarvan in 'n gevallestudie. Die sekondêre doelwit van hierdie navorsing is die sosiale studie van die finansiële kennis-, finansiële gedrags- en finansiële houdingsvlakke van individue. Ten einde relevansie tussen die gevallestudie en die metingsinstrument te verseker, is finansiële geletterdheid aanvanklik as 'n bestuursvaardigheid geëvalueer. Finansiële geletterdheid word in die Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag (SANW), as kernvaardigheid aangedui. Die finansiële geletterdheidsinstrument is gekonstrueer na 'n verkenning van die konteksuele en konsepsuele aard van finansiële geletterdheid. 'n Vraelys is geselekteer as die ideale metode om die relevante data te bekom. Die vraelys se geldigheid en betroubaarheid is as deel van deskriptiewe navorsing in die ontwikkelingsfase, en ook tydens die gevallestudie, bepaal. Die gesigs- en inhoudsgeldigheid is bevestig deur respondentterugvoer en vakspesialisinsette. Betroubaarheid van die metingsinstrument is bepaal deur die berekening van itemmoeilikheidsgraad, itemdiskriminasie, gemiddelde, standaardafwyking en uiteindelik interne betroubaarheid van die finansiële kennis-, gedrags- en houdingsafdelings van die metingsinstrument. In die gevallestudie, het eerstejaarstudente 'n gemiddeld van 50.17% vir die kennisfaktor behaal, alhoewel hulle hul eie kennisvlakke gemiddeld as 60.8% aangedui het. Respondente het hoofsaaklik gesukkel met kennisvrae wat handel oor beleggings, versekering en inflasie. Hul het die minste gesukkel met kennisvrae wat handel oor aftrede en inkomste en uitgawes. Hierdie navorsing bevestig die belangrikheid van finansiële geletterdheid as bestuursvaardigheid, asook op 'n globale, nasionale, organisatoriese en persoonlike vlak. Hierdie studie het 'n geldige en betroubare finansiële geletterdheidsmetingsinstrument opgelewer; een wat deur diverse finansiële geletterdheidsaandeelhouers in Suid-Afrika aangewend kan word. Hierdie metingsinstrument sal empiriese inligting oor finansiële kennis-, gedrags-, en houdingsvlakke genereer en aantoon waar intervensie benodig word. Die belangrikheid van finansiële geletterdheid, sowel as die noodsaak vir 'n geldige en geloofwaardige metingsinstrument, is geleenthede vir verdere navorsing en ontwikkeling.

340 leaves printed on single pages, preliminary pages i-xvii and numbered pages 1-322. Includes bibliography, table of contents, list of figures, list of tables, list of abbreviations. / Dissertation (PhD)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The study represents a descriptive analysis of the tensions that drive the need for an educated military in South Africa and, more specifically the role of the South African Military Academy in the provision thereof. The purpose of the research was to demarcate the proper role of the South African Military Academy in the academic and professional preparation of officers for the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). This purpose necessitated, firstly, an analysis of the need for education in armed forces in general and in South Africa in particular, with specific reference to the tensions underpinning military education and training. It secondly called for a broad assessment of the nature of professional military education in the SANDF at large to contextualise the role and function of the South African Military Academy. These discussions are based on a literature overview, document analysis and unstructured interviews with decision makers. In the first part of the study, a framework is developed for the education of officers. The framework is based on the assumption that modern military professionalism is rooted in a need for training to develop military skills, education to understand and develop the military body of knowledge and experience as the application of skills and knowledge. It is also based on the identification of four knowledge clusters that need to be the focus of officer education, namely the external security environment within which armed forces operate, the nature of armed forces as organisations, the professional employment of armed force(s), and the physical environment within which armed forces operate. The framework highlights three levels of officer development: the making of lieutenants, the making of colonels, and the making of generals. This framework is used for the analysis of education, training and development in the SANDF. Both the positive and negative attributes as well as trends in training and education in the SANDF are discussed. The discussion serves as the departing point for an outline of the debate about the role of the Military Academy since democratisation in 1994. It is argued that there is no clarity about the role and function of the Military Academy. Critical questions are also asked about the nature of the academic programmes offered to officers at the Military Academy. The departmental level agreement between the Department of Defence and the University of Stellenbosch is pointed out as the raison d'être for many of the problems with which the Military Academy is confronted. The study finally highlights the need for education as a requirement for officership in the SANDF, a reconsideration of military socialisation at the Military Academy, the difficult position of the Faculty of Military Science, the need for a core academic programme, and structural changes that are needed at the Military Academy. It is recommended that, like many foreign military academies, the future existence of the Military Academy be assured through national legislation. The involvement of the University of Stellenbosch in the education of young officers at the Military Academy should not be terminated. However, the existence, functioning, organisation and structure of the Military Academy should not be based on a “goodwill-approach” between the University and the Department of Defence. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die studie bied beskrywende analise van die spannings wat die behoefte aan opgevoede weermag in Suid-Afrika onderlê en, meer spesifiek, die rol van die Militêre Akademie in die voorsiening van opvoeding in dié verband. Die besondere oogmerk van die navorsing is die afbakening van die werklike rol van die Suid-Afrikaanse Militêre Akademie in die akademiese en professionele voorbereiding van offisiere vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag (SANW). Hierdie oogmerk vereis, eerstens, ontleding van die noodsaaklikheid vir die opvoeding van weermagte in die algemeen en in Suid-Afrika in die besonder, met spesifieke verwysing na die spannings wat militêre opvoeding en opleiding onderlê. Dit noodsaak, tweedens, breë waardering van die aard van professionele militêre opvoeding in die SANW om die rol en funksie van die Suid-Afrikaanse Militêre Akademie te kontekstualiseer. Die besprekings is gebaseer op literatuuroorsig, dokumentontleding en ongestruktureerde onderhoude. In die eerste deel van die studie word raamwerk vir die opvoeding van offisiere ontwikkel. Dié raamwerk is gebaseer op die aanname dat moderne militêre professionalisme gebaseer is op militêre opleiding om vaardighede te ontwikkel, opvoeding om die militêre kennisliggaam te verstaan en ontwikkel, asook ervaring as toepassing van vaardighede en kennis. Die raamwerk omvat ook die identifisering van vier fokus kennisareas, naamlik die eksterne omgewing waarin weermagte opereer, die organisatoriese aard van krygsmagte, die professionele aanwending van krygsmag(te), en die fisiese omgewing waarin krygsmagte opereer. Die raamwerk beklemtoon voorts drie vlakke van offisiersopvoeding: die ontwikkeling van luitenante, die ontwikkeling van kolonels, en die ontwikkeling van generaals. Die raamwerk word vervolgens vir ontleding van opvoeding, opleiding en ontwikkeling in die SANW gebruik. Beide die positiewe en die negatiewe kenmerke sowel as tendense van opleiding en opvoeding in die SANW word bespreek. Dié bespreking dien as vertrekpunt vir ontleding van die debat oor die rol van die Militêre Akademie sedert demokratisering in 1994. Daar word aangevoer dat daar geen duidelikheid oor die rol en funksie van die Militêre Akademie bestaan nie. Kritiese vrae word gevra oor die aard van die akademiese programme wat aan offisiere by die Militêre Akademie gebied word. Die departementele ooreenkoms tussen die departement van Verdediging en die Universiteit Stellenbosch word voorgehou as die raison d'être van baie probleme waarmee die Akademie gekonfronteer word. Die studie beklemtoon die behoefte aan opvoeding as vereiste vir offisierskap in die SANW, die heroorweging van militêre sosialisering by die Militêre Akademie, die heroorweging van die posisie van die Fakulteit Krygskunde, die behoefte aan akademiese kernleerplan, en strukturele veranderinge wat by die Militêre Akademie vereis word. Daar word aanbeveel dat, soos in die geval van verskeie buitelandse militêre akademies, die toekoms van die Militêre Akademie deur nasionale wetgewing verseker word. Die betrokkenheid van die Universiteit Stellenbosch in die opvoeding van offisiere moenie daardeur beëindig word nie. Die bestaan, funksionering, organisering en struktuur van die Militêre Akademie moet egter nie op “welwillendheidsooreenkoms” tussen die Universiteit en die Departement van Verdediging gebaseer wees nie.