Urbanisation is a global issue, and rapidly gaining attention from researchers as a major cause of biodiversity loss. Gardens represent a considerable proportion of the urban landscape in the UK and have significant potential to promote urban biodiversity and reduce species loss providing they can be designed and managed appropriately. This research focused on gardens in St Andrews, Scotland, and investigated the influence of environmental variables such as age and area on arachnid and beetle biodiversity with the aim of identifying key predictors of arthropod species richness in urban environments. The key result of this research was that the age and area of individual gardens was not a strong predictor of ground active arthropod biodiversity. This suggests that more recently developed or smaller gardens can contribute to the overall urban region species richness pool as well as larger or more ancient gardens. The most important predictor of ground active arachnid and beetle species richness was the proportion of porous (or 'green') habitat surrounding each garden, and suggested that urban density and habitat connectivity at the regional scale are of key importance. In general, variables measured within gardens (e.g. the provision of microhabitats such as leaf litter, non-managed vegetation, etc.) did not exert any measurable effect on the biodiversity of arachnids or beetles. The findings of this research suggest that the regional availability of heterogeneous greenspace habitat is of high importance for promoting and maintaining urban arthropod biodiversity.

Os ácaros são Arthropoda muito numerosos em diversos ambientes e substratos. No Brasil os ácaros de plantas cultivadas são relativamente bem conhecidos, porém pouco se conhece sobre os ácaros edáficos. Esse fato deve-se em parte ao restrito número de especialistas e de trabalhos que sintetizam as informações taxonômicas sobre estes. Há atualmente grande interesse na redução da utilização de agroquímicos para o controle de pragas agrícola, que é a maneira mais utilizada de controlá-las. Isto é função da preocupação com os efeitos ambientais e a resistência de pragas aos produtos utilizados, além do elevado custo dessa forma de controle. Todos estes fatores levaram à busca de novas táticas de controle de pragas, incluindo o uso de ácaros predadores. Ologamasidae e Rhodacaridae, já relatados em solos brasileiros como grupos freqüentes e abundantes, se alimentam de uma série de organismos edáficos, alguns dos quais são pragas potenciais em culturas; dentre estes estão os colêmbola, moscas da família Sciaridae, tripes, ácaros da família Acaridae e nematóides. Em todo mundo pouco se sabe sobre a biologia dos Rhodacaroidea. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram: elaborar uma lista de informações taxonômicas de Ologamasidae do mundo; identificar espécies de Rhodacaroidea coletadas em solo e folhedo da Mata Atlântica e Cerrado do Estado de São Paulo; elaborar uma chave taxonomica para auxiliar na separação de gêneros e/ou espécies correspondentes àqueles ácaros; descrever algumas das espécies novas de Ologamasidae determinadas no presente estudo; estudar o potencial de 3 espécies de Rhodacaroidea comuns nos ambientes estudados como agentes de controle biológico de diferentes organismos edáficos. Foram realizadas buscas em bancos de dados para a detecção de referências taxonômicas sobre Ologamasidae, dispersas na literatura nacional e internacional. Com esse trabalho, criou-se uma base de informações taxonômicas sobre as espécies de Ologamasidae do mundo, o que permitiu a elaboração de uma lista de espécies de Ologamasidae. São citadas nesta lista 385 espécies válidas, distribuídas em 45 gêneros, dfos quais os mais abundantes são Gamasiphis com quase 16% do total das espécies válidas, seguido por Gamasellus e Geogamasus com metade desse percentual. Sete dos gêneros são monotípos. Vinte e cinco espécies, consideradas como Ologamasidae não puderam ser atribuídas a nenhum gênero, por serem insuficientes suas descrições (incertae sedis). Foram descritas 6 novas espécies. Foram estudados em laboratório aspectos biológicos de uma espécie ainda não descrita de Ologamasus (Ologamasidae), de Protrogamasellopsis dioscorus Manson e de Protogamasellopsis posnaniensis (Wisniewk e Hirschmann) (estas, Rhodacaridae), quando alimentados com o ácaro Astigmata Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank). Considerando a freqüência com que Ologamasus sp. nova 1 tem sido encontrada no Estado de São Paulo, os resultados obtidos sugerem que em condições naturais este ácaro se alimente de outros organismos daqueles substratos, que não ácaros Astigmata. Entretanto, P. dioscorus e P. posnaniensis poderiam em condições naturais incluir aqueles ácaros em sua alimentação, como sugerido pelos parâmetros avaliados no presente estudo. / Mites are very numerous Arthropoda in diverse environments and substrates. In Brasil, mites of cultivated plants are relatively well known, but little is known about edaphic mites. This is partially due to the restrict number of specialists and of works that synthesize the taxonomic information on those mites. Presently, there is considerable interest in reducing the use of chemical products for the control of agricultural pests, presently the most common way of controlling them. This is a function of the growing preoccupation with the environmental effects, the acquisition of pest resistance to those chemicals and the high costs involved. All those factors led to the search for new control tactics, including the use of predatory mites. Ologamasidae and Rhodacaridae, already reported as frequent and abundant in Brazilian soils, feed on a series of edaphic organisms, some of which are potential pests; among these Collembola, Sciaridae flies, thrips, Acaridae mites and nematodes. In the whole world, little is known about the biology of Rhodacaroidea. The objectives of the present work were: to prepare a list of taxonomic information concerning the Ologamasidae of the world; to identify the species of Rhodacaroidea collected in soil and litter of \"Mata Atlantica\" and \"Cerrado\" vegetaions of the State of Sao Paulo; to prepare a taxonomic key to help in the separation of genera and species corresponding to those mites; to describe some of the new species of Ologamasidae determined in this study; to study the potential of 3 Rhodacaroidea species commonly found in the studied environments as biological control agents of different edaphic organisms. Searches were conducted in data bases to determine taxonomic references on Ologamasidae disperse in the Brazilian and international literature. With this work, a base on taxzonomic information was established for the world Ologamasidae. In this list, 385 valid species are mentioned, distributed in 45 genera, of which the most abundant are Gamasiphis, with almost 16% of the total number of valid species, followed by Gamasellus and Geogamasus, each with about half of that proportion. Seven of the genera are monotypic. Twenty-five species, considered as Ologamasidae could not be placed in genera because of the insufficient information provided in the descriptions of those species (Incertae sedis). Six new species were described. Aspect of the biology of an undescribed species of Ologamasus (Ologamasidae), of Protrogamasellopsis dioscorus Manson e of Protogamasellopsis posnaniensis (Wisniewk e Hirschmann) (both, Rhodacaridae) were studied in the laboratory, when offered the Astigmata mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) as prey. Considering the frequency with which the new species of Ologamaus has been found in the State of Sao Paulo, the results of this study suggest that in nature this mite does feeds on other organisms in those substrates, that Astigmata mites. However, P. dioscorus and P. posnaniensicould in nature include those mites in their diets, as suggested by the parameters evaluated in the present study.

Os ácaros são Arthropoda muito numerosos em diversos ambientes e substratos. No Brasil os ácaros de plantas cultivadas são relativamente bem conhecidos, porém pouco se conhece sobre os ácaros edáficos. Esse fato deve-se em parte ao restrito número de especialistas e de trabalhos que sintetizam as informações taxonômicas sobre estes. Há atualmente grande interesse na redução da utilização de agroquímicos para o controle de pragas agrícola, que é a maneira mais utilizada de controlá-las. Isto é função da preocupação com os efeitos ambientais e a resistência de pragas aos produtos utilizados, além do elevado custo dessa forma de controle. Todos estes fatores levaram à busca de novas táticas de controle de pragas, incluindo o uso de ácaros predadores. Ologamasidae e Rhodacaridae, já relatados em solos brasileiros como grupos freqüentes e abundantes, se alimentam de uma série de organismos edáficos, alguns dos quais são pragas potenciais em culturas; dentre estes estão os colêmbola, moscas da família Sciaridae, tripes, ácaros da família Acaridae e nematóides. Em todo mundo pouco se sabe sobre a biologia dos Rhodacaroidea. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram: elaborar uma lista de informações taxonômicas de Ologamasidae do mundo; identificar espécies de Rhodacaroidea coletadas em solo e folhedo da Mata Atlântica e Cerrado do Estado de São Paulo; elaborar uma chave taxonomica para auxiliar na separação de gêneros e/ou espécies correspondentes àqueles ácaros; descrever algumas das espécies novas de Ologamasidae determinadas no presente estudo; estudar o potencial de 3 espécies de Rhodacaroidea comuns nos ambientes estudados como agentes de controle biológico de diferentes organismos edáficos. Foram realizadas buscas em bancos de dados para a detecção de referências taxonômicas sobre Ologamasidae, dispersas na literatura nacional e internacional. Com esse trabalho, criou-se uma base de informações taxonômicas sobre as espécies de Ologamasidae do mundo, o que permitiu a elaboração de uma lista de espécies de Ologamasidae. São citadas nesta lista 385 espécies válidas, distribuídas em 45 gêneros, dfos quais os mais abundantes são Gamasiphis com quase 16% do total das espécies válidas, seguido por Gamasellus e Geogamasus com metade desse percentual. Sete dos gêneros são monotípos. Vinte e cinco espécies, consideradas como Ologamasidae não puderam ser atribuídas a nenhum gênero, por serem insuficientes suas descrições (incertae sedis). Foram descritas 6 novas espécies. Foram estudados em laboratório aspectos biológicos de uma espécie ainda não descrita de Ologamasus (Ologamasidae), de Protrogamasellopsis dioscorus Manson e de Protogamasellopsis posnaniensis (Wisniewk e Hirschmann) (estas, Rhodacaridae), quando alimentados com o ácaro Astigmata Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank). Considerando a freqüência com que Ologamasus sp. nova 1 tem sido encontrada no Estado de São Paulo, os resultados obtidos sugerem que em condições naturais este ácaro se alimente de outros organismos daqueles substratos, que não ácaros Astigmata. Entretanto, P. dioscorus e P. posnaniensis poderiam em condições naturais incluir aqueles ácaros em sua alimentação, como sugerido pelos parâmetros avaliados no presente estudo. / Mites are very numerous Arthropoda in diverse environments and substrates. In Brasil, mites of cultivated plants are relatively well known, but little is known about edaphic mites. This is partially due to the restrict number of specialists and of works that synthesize the taxonomic information on those mites. Presently, there is considerable interest in reducing the use of chemical products for the control of agricultural pests, presently the most common way of controlling them. This is a function of the growing preoccupation with the environmental effects, the acquisition of pest resistance to those chemicals and the high costs involved. All those factors led to the search for new control tactics, including the use of predatory mites. Ologamasidae and Rhodacaridae, already reported as frequent and abundant in Brazilian soils, feed on a series of edaphic organisms, some of which are potential pests; among these Collembola, Sciaridae flies, thrips, Acaridae mites and nematodes. In the whole world, little is known about the biology of Rhodacaroidea. The objectives of the present work were: to prepare a list of taxonomic information concerning the Ologamasidae of the world; to identify the species of Rhodacaroidea collected in soil and litter of \"Mata Atlantica\" and \"Cerrado\" vegetaions of the State of Sao Paulo; to prepare a taxonomic key to help in the separation of genera and species corresponding to those mites; to describe some of the new species of Ologamasidae determined in this study; to study the potential of 3 Rhodacaroidea species commonly found in the studied environments as biological control agents of different edaphic organisms. Searches were conducted in data bases to determine taxonomic references on Ologamasidae disperse in the Brazilian and international literature. With this work, a base on taxzonomic information was established for the world Ologamasidae. In this list, 385 valid species are mentioned, distributed in 45 genera, of which the most abundant are Gamasiphis, with almost 16% of the total number of valid species, followed by Gamasellus and Geogamasus, each with about half of that proportion. Seven of the genera are monotypic. Twenty-five species, considered as Ologamasidae could not be placed in genera because of the insufficient information provided in the descriptions of those species (Incertae sedis). Six new species were described. Aspect of the biology of an undescribed species of Ologamasus (Ologamasidae), of Protrogamasellopsis dioscorus Manson e of Protogamasellopsis posnaniensis (Wisniewk e Hirschmann) (both, Rhodacaridae) were studied in the laboratory, when offered the Astigmata mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) as prey. Considering the frequency with which the new species of Ologamaus has been found in the State of Sao Paulo, the results of this study suggest that in nature this mite does feeds on other organisms in those substrates, that Astigmata mites. However, P. dioscorus and P. posnaniensicould in nature include those mites in their diets, as suggested by the parameters evaluated in the present study.

Object categorization is one of the fundamental topics in computer vision research. Most current work in object categorization aims to discriminate among generic object classes with gross differences. However, many applications require much finer distinctions. This thesis focuses on the design, evaluation and analysis of learning algorithms for fine- grained object classification. The contributions of the thesis are three-fold. First, we introduce two databases of high-resolution images of arthropod specimens we collected to promote the development of highly accurate fine-grained recognition methods. Second, we give a literature review on the development of Bag-of-words (BOW) approaches to image classification and present the stacked evidence tree approach we developed for the fine-grained classification task. We draw connections and analyze differences between those two genres of approaches, which leads to a better understanding about the design of image classification approaches. Third, benchmark results on our two datasets are pre- sented. We further analyze the influence of two important variables on the performance of fine-grained classification. The experiments corroborate our hypotheses that a) high resolution images and b) more aggressive information extraction, such as finer descriptor encoding with large dictionaries or classifiers based on raw descriptors, is required to achieve good fine-grained categorization accuracy. / Graduation date: 2013

Although a considerable amount of work has been done on the fauna of the soil of temperate forests and pastures, very little is known about that of tropical and sub-tropical soils. Most of the work on tropical soils concerns the fauna of tropical forests ... . The present investigation represents an attempt to discover the effect of an imported perennial tropical and sub-tropical plant, the Pineapple, on the soil fauna of a semi-arid region (rainfall 15-25 inches). Intro., p. 1-2

L'objectif de cet ouvrage est d'établir un schéma d'évolution paléogéographique de la plate-forme cénomanienne permettant de replacer géographiquement les différents domaines sédimentologiques. Tracer le paysage de Tunisie centrale au cours du Cénomanien, n'est autre qu'une analyse et une compréhension des faciès et de l'environnement. Il a fallu d'abord tenter, dans la mesure du possible, d'esquisser une biozonation basée non seulement sur les foraminifères benthiques et planctoniques, mais aussi les ammonites et les ostracodes. Cette biozonation appelait à son tour une étude systématique. C'est dans cette direction que s'est engagée la présente recherche

No description available.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The conservation of biodiversity is becoming increasingly challenging as habitats are disturbed, fragmented or destroyed. Although nature reserves now cover more than 10 % of the earths’ surface it has become clear that more will have to be done to ensure the long-term survival of species. Therefore, focus is increasingly shifting towards conserving biodiversity in natural and semi-natural remnants in human-influenced areas. This study aimed to determine the contribution of remnants in human-influenced areas to the conservation of biodiversity in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) lowlands, using ground-dwelling arthropods, specifically ants, as the focal taxon. Initially, base-line information of arthropods and in particular ants was obtained. Sampling arthropods generally involves a large sample effort. Therefore maximizing sampling effort for ants in the CFR was investigated by trapping ground-dwelling ants at a single locality. Doubling the number of grids of pitfall traps was found to be more effective in trapping a greater number of species than doubling the duration of sampling. Therefore increasing spatial sampling intensity rather than sampling duration maximizes sample effort for CFR ants. Also, the seasonal changes of ground-dwelling arthropods, including ants, were determined by sampling four times during the year at a single locality. Overall arthropod abundance was found to peak in summer while dropping to a minimum in winter. This pattern was mirrored by that of the ants, indicating that ant results have a broader relevance than to ants only. The ground-dwelling fauna was dominated by ants emphasizing their importance in the CFR lowlands, and demonstrating that ants are an appropriate flagship taxon for epigaeic arthropod diversity in the CFR. Finally the contribution of remnants in human-influenced areas to the conservation of the CFR was investigated. A nested hierarchical approach was used, where five localities were selected across the CFR, each containing one reserve site and one site with natural remnants. Ants were sampled, along with environmental variables, namely weather, vegetation and soil. Overall, remnants were found to support similar ant assemblages to those of reserves. However for individual localities some remnants were significantly different to their reserve counterparts. Differences in ant assemblages were found to be greater between localities than between reserves and remnants. The relatively high heterogeneity of ants found in this study emphasizes the conservation significance of invertebrates along with that of plants in the CFR. Remnants clearly show the potential to conserve ant assemblages, however correct management is needed for these areas to maximize their potential. Disturbances such as the presence of the invasive Argentine ant and increasing soil nutrients by fertilization, pose a distinct threat to the ability of remnants to conserve ant assemblages. This study has shown that remnants currently support ant assemblages representative of those present in the CFR today. Therefore, some remnant patches of habitat in agricultural areas currently do contribute highly to the conservation of a functional important taxon in this global biodiversity hotspot, and if managed correctly, may continue to do so in the future. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die vernietiging en fragmentering van habitatte maak die bewaring van biodiversiteit al hoe meer van ‘n uitdaging. Alhoewel natuur reservate reeds meer as 10 % van die aarde se oppervlak beslaan is dit duidelik dat meer gedoen sal moet word vir die lang-termyn voortbestaan van spesies. Dus word die fokus van biodiversiteit-bewaring toenemend gerig op bewaring van natuurlike en semi-natuurlike fragmente in menslik-beinvloede gebiede. Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal wat die bydrae van fragmente van natuurlike veld in menslik-beinvloede gebiede is tot die bewaring van die streek. Dit is gedoen deur van grond-lewende geleedpotiges en spesifiek, miere in die Kaapse floraryk (CFR) gebruik te maak. Aanvanklik is kennis ingewin oor die geleedpotiges en spesifiek miere in die omgewing. Omdat die versameling van geleedpotige diere gewoonlik baie moeite vereis is ‘n maksimum steekproef gedoen by ‘n enkele lokaliteit. Daar is gevind dat ‘n verdubbling van die aantal ruitsteekproefnemings met vanggate meer effektief is om miere te vang as ‘n verdubbling in die tydperiode wat vanggate oop is. Dus, is ‘n hoër ruimtelike steekproef intensiteit meer effektief in vergelyking met ‘n langer tydsduur vir miere in die CFR. Die seisoenale veranderinge van grond-lewende geleedpotiges, sowel as miere, was ook bepaal. Dit was gedoen deur vier seisoenale steekproewe te doen by ‘n enkele lokaliteit. Die totale geleedpotige-talrykheid was die meeste gedurende die somer en die minste in die winter. Die miertalrykheid het ook hierdie patroon weerspieël. Dit dui daarop dat veranderinge in mier versamelings van breër belang is vir alle grondlewende geleedpotiges. Miere was die dominante grond-lewende geleedpotiges en beklemtoon die belangrikheid van miere in die CFR, sowel as hulle toepaslikheid as vlagskip taksa vir grond-lewende geleedpotige diversiteit in die CFR. Laastens was die bydrae van gefragmenteerde natuurlike veld in menslik–beinvloede gebiede tot die bewaring van die CFR ondersoek. ’n Krimpende/ genestelde hiërargies benadering is gebruik in vyf geselekteerde lokaliteite, elk het bestaan uit ‘n area in ‘n natuur reservaat en ‘n area in ‘n naasliggende fragment. Miere was versamel saam met ‘n verskeidenheid omgewings veranderlike, naamlik weer, plantegroei en grond. In die algemeen is gevind dat fragmente en reservate gelyksoortige mier versamelings het. Daar was wel gevind dat party fragmente aansienlik verskillend was van die reservaat teenstuk. Verskille in mier versamelings tussen lokaliteite was groter as verskille tussen reservate en fragmente. Die relatief hoë heterogeniteit van miere beklemtoon die bewaringsbelang van invertebrate saam met dié van plante in die CFR. Dit is duidelik dat fragmente wel ‘n potensiale bydrae kan maak om die mier versamelinge te bewaar, maar gepaste bestuur is nodig om hierdie potentiaal te maksimaliseer. Versteurings soos die teenwoordigheid van die indringer Argentynse mier en toenemende grondvoedingstofkonsentrasie as gevolg van bemesting is ‘n groot bedreiging tot die vermoë van fragmente om mier versamelings te bewaar. Hierdie studie wys dat mier versamelings in gefragmenterde areas verteenwordigend is van die algemene mier versamlings wat op die oomblik in die CFR is. Dus lewer party fragmente in landbou gebiede op die oomblik ‘n wesenlike bydrae tot die bewaring van ‘n funksioneel belangrike takson in hierdie globale biodiversiteitsbrandpunt en die bydra sal volhoubaar wees met korekte bestuur.

Lake Tanganyika is a complex, tropical ecosystem in East Africa, harboring an estimated 2,100 species. Extensive watershed deforestation threatens the biodiversity and ecological integrity of the lake. In this dissertation, ecological and paleoecological methods were employed to study the distribution of invertebrate biodiversity through space and time, with particular emphasis on linkages between biodiversity and land –use patterns. Ecological surveys of fish, mollusc, and ostracod crustacean diversity at sites in northern Lake Tanganyika representing different levels of watershed disturbance revealed a negative correlation between biodiversity and intensity of watershed disturbance. To elucidate the long -term relationship between disturbance and biodiversity, paleoecological records of invertebrates offshore from watersheds experiencing different degrees of anthropogenic disturbance were examined. Life, death, and fossil assemblages of ostracod valves were compared to assess the reliability and natural variability inherent to the paleoecological record. These comparisons indicated that paleoecological (i.e. death and fossil) assemblages reliably preserve information on species richness, abundance, and occurrence frequency at comparable -to- annual resolution. Unlike life assemblages, species composition of paleoecological assemblages reflects input of species from multiple habitat types. Ostracod paleoecological assemblages are characterized by spatiotemporal averaging that renders them representative of larger areas and longer time spans than life assemblages. Thus, paleoecological assemblages provide an efficient means of characterizing longer -term, site -average conditions. Natural variability in ostracod fossil assemblages from a sediment core representing the Late Glacial to the present indicates that abundance of individual ostracod species is highly variable. Ostracod assemblages were preserved in only the most recent 2,500 years of sediment. Species composition of ostracod assemblages reflects lake water depth. Core geochemical data indicate that the coring site may have been below the oxycline for ~2,000 years, inhibiting ostracod survival and preservation. Paleoecological, sedimentological, and stable isotope data revealed differences in biodiversity and watershed disturbance through time offshore from a pair of sites. The protected site is offshore from Gombe Stream National Park (Tanzania), the other offshore from a deforested watershed outside the park. Offshore from the deforested watershed, sedimentation rates increased, and turnover in ostracod species composition occurred during the past 50 years. Comparable changes were not observed offshore from the park.

Arthropod hemocyanin and phenoloxidase are members of a group of proteins called the Type-3 copper oxygen-binding proteins, both possessing a highly conserved oxygen-binding site containing two copper atoms each coordinated by three histidine residues (Decker and Tuczek, 2000). Despite similarities in their active site, these proteins have very different physiological functions. Phenoloxidase possesses both tyrosinase and o-diphenoloxidase activity, and is predominantly involved in reactions which protect insects from infection (Kopàcek et al., 1995). Hemocyanin is a large multi-subunit protein with a primary function as a respiratory protein, reversibly binding and transporting molecular O2 (Decker and Rimke, 1998; Decker and Tuczek, 2000). Recently, it has been demonstrated in vitro that arthropod hemocyanin possesses an inducible phenoloxidase activity when incubated with denaturants, detergents, phospholipids or proteolytic enzymes. This activity appears to be restricted to only a few subunit types, and it has been hypothesised that it may be accompanied by conformational change which opens the active site increasing access for larger phenolic substrates (Decker and Jaenicke, 2004; Decker et al., 2001; Decker and Tuczek, 2000). This possibly suggests a dual role of hemocyanin in arthropods. The presented thesis deals with two distinct aims. The first was to isolate and sequence a phenoloxidase gene from the insect Spodoptera littoralis (Egyptian Cottonleaf Worm). Despite efforts, progress was hindered by a number of experimental problems which are outlined within the relevant chapters. The second aim was to characterise the mode of SDS induced phenoloxidase activity in arthropod hemocyanin from the ancient chelicerates Limulus polyphemus (horseshoe crab) and Eurypelma californicum (tarantula) and the more modern chelicerate Pandinus imperator (scorpion), using a number of biophysical techniques. The results indicated that the SDS induced phenoloxidase activity is associated with localised tertiary and secondary conformational changes in hemocyanin, most likely in the vicinity of the dicopper centre, thus enhancing access for larger phenolic substrates. Experiments indicate that copper remains associated with the protein during these structural changes; however the nature of the association is unclear. SDS concentrations approximating the CMC appeared critical in causing the necessary structural changes required for a significant increase in the detectable phenoloxidase activity to be exhibited.