Submitted by Amanda Silva (amanda.osilva2@ufpe.br) on 2015-03-11T13:55:22Z No. of bitstreams: 2 DISSERTAÇÃO Juliana Silva de Lima.pdf: 879616 bytes, checksum: 10b56794437f3de766e1c841bea11e25 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-11T13:55:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 DISSERTAÇÃO Juliana Silva de Lima.pdf: 879616 bytes, checksum: 10b56794437f3de766e1c841bea11e25 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-02-27 / FACEPE / Espécies de Aspergillus e Penicillium são de extrema importância na natureza, pois participam de forma ativa nos ciclos biogeoquímicos, atuando na decomposição de matéria orgânica. Devido à sua elevada competência metabólica, não são muito exigentes nutricionalmente e são tolerantes a uma imensa variedade de condições físico-químicas. A tanase é uma enzima extracelular, induzível produzida por fungos filamentosos, bactérias e leveduras através da Fermentação em Estado Solido (FES) ou Fermentação Submersa (FS). Os taninos são compostos fenólicos provenientes do metabolismo secundário de vegetais podendo ser encontrados em todas as partes da planta. Desta forma, alguns resíduos vegetais ricos em taninos podem ser utilizados como substrato para produção da tanase. O presente trabalho teve como objetivos testar linhagens de Aspergillus e Penicillium mantidas na micoteca URM quanto a produção de tanases através de FES, utilizando folhas e resíduos de acerola e de mangaba como substratos, otimizar a produção pela linhagem melhor produtora, caracterizar o extrato bruto e aplicação na clarificação do suco de uva (Vitis vinifera L). A determinação das melhores condições de produção da enzima foi realizada utilizando como ferramenta o Planejamento Placket-Burman (PB) e Metodologia de Superfície de Resposta (MSR). A enzima foi caracterizada quanto ao efeito e estabilidade ao pH e à temperatura. Todas as culturas testadas produziram tanase com atividade entre 3,57 e 32,52 U/mL, sendo P. montanense URM 6486 o melhor produtor utilizando resíduo de acerola como substrato. Na MSR foram encontrados como os melhores parâmetros para a produção de tanase: meio de cultura umidecido 70%, 3,5% de ácido tânico, 34°C, com atividade máxima de 41,64 U/mL. Penicillium montanense URM 6486 apresenta pH e temperatura ótimos a 9,0 e 50°C, respectivamente e a enzima foi estável toda faixa de pH e temperatura. As tanases produzida por P. montanense URM 6486 quando aplicadas ao suco de uva, apresentou maior eficiência ao reduzir 46% do teor de taninos presentes no suco, após 120 minutos à 37ºC. O resíduo de acerola demonstrou um grande potencial como substrato para a produção da enzima em estudo, minimizando os custos de produção e agregando valor ao resíduo, uma vez que a enzima tem alto custo.

A produção de pectinases por Aspergillus niger LB-02-SF foi estudada, em processo submerso, com o objetivo de avaliar condições de processo de obtenção, caracterizar e utilizar as enzimas produzidas. As condições de processo estudadas foram a composição do meio de cultivo, a adição de pectina (indutor enzimático) ao meio após a fase de intenso crescimento celular, a utilização de inóculo vegetativo e estratégias de controle do pH. Adicionalmente, o extrato enzimático bruto foi caracterizado quanto à temperatura e ao pH de reação e utilizado no tratamento de suco de maçã Gala. Com o meio de cultivo formulado, que não contém glicose na composição, foi verificada a redução do crescimento celular, sem afetar a produção de pectinases e facilitando o controle dos parâmetros de processo. A adição de pectina quando o pH atingiu o valor de 2,7 (22 horas) não influenciou o crescimento fúngico, sendo que a concentração celular máxima (11,0 g/L) e o tempo em que ela ocorreu (48 horas) foram semelhantes aos observados na condição controle, com pectina presente no meio desde o início do processo (11,5 g/L em 41 horas). Nesta condição de adição de indutor enzimático, a produção de pectinases foi favorecida, sendo atingida atividade máxima de 14 U/mL, cerca de 40% superior à da condição controle, no mesmo tempo de cultivo (135 horas). A utilização de inóculo vegetativo levou à redução da fase de adaptação do microrganismo ao meio. Concentrações de 5 e 10% (v/v) favoreceram o crescimento celular; no entanto, foram verificadas atividades enzimáticas máximas de 5,5 e 3,8 U/mL, inferiores à obtida com a inoculação por esporos (6,4 U/mL). Além disso, não foi observada redução dos tempos em que os picos de atividade enzimática ocorreram. No cultivo com a queda natural do pH inicial de 4,0 para o mínimo atingido (pH 2,5) e posterior controle neste valor, foi obtida atividade enzimática máxima de 7,5 U/mL, superior às atingidas no cultivo com controle de pH em mínimo de 2,7 e no cultivo com pH não controlado, de 6,4 e 3,5 U/mL, respectivamente. Nos cultivos em frascos sob agitação, valores iniciais de pH de 2,0, 3,0 e 4,0 foram os que proporcionaram a obtenção de maiores valores de fator de produção específica (YP/X). Em cultivos em biorreator com o pH controlado nestes valores durante todo o processo, verificou-se que o crescimento celular foi favorecido em pH 3,0, com a concentração máxima de biomassa (10,2 g/L) sendo atingida cerca de 90 horas antes do pico observado no cultivo com pH 2,0 constante (7,7 g/L). Por outro lado, a produção de pectinases foi favorecida em pH 2,0, com pico de atividade enzimática de 9,5U/mL, superior aos determinados com pH constante de 3,0 e 4,0, de 4,7 e 2,0 U/mL, respectivamente. A estratégia de condução do cultivo que possibilitou a obtenção da maior atividade enzimática, de 13,2 U/mL, foi em pH inicial de 3,0 e mantido até que fosse atingido no meio a concentração de oxigênio dissolvido de 30%, sendo então reduzido para 2,0 pela adição de H2SO4. Nesta condição, o crescimento celular não foi afetado, resultando em maior fator de produção específica (1,26 U/mg). A ação das enzimas pectinolíticas produzidas em cultivo líquido foi favorecida em pH 4,0 e em temperatura de 50ºC. A estabilidade das enzimas formadas é favorecida em pH 3,0, sendo observada a manutenção de 90% da atividade inicial após 120 horas de exposição. Com a exposição do extrato enzimático às temperaturas de 30, 40 e 50ºC, 100% da atividade enzimática inicial foram preservados por até 180 minutos. Na avaliação da ação do extrato enzimático no tratamento de suco de maçã, os resultados foram estatisticamente semelhantes aos observados após o uso de preparação pectinolítica comercial. Após o tratamento enzimático, foi determinado aumento de clarificação de 79%, com a redução da turbidez e da viscosidade em 98 e 10%, respectivamente. Os resultados obtidos neste trabalho demonstram que as condições avaliadas para o processo submerso influenciam efetivamente na produção de pectinases e que estas enzimas têm potencial para serem utilizadas em formulações para a clarificação de sucos de frutas. / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES. / The production of pectinases by Aspergillus niger LB-02-SF was carried out in submerged process, aiming to evaluate process conditions and to characterize and utilize the produced enzymes. The process conditions evaluated were medium composition, addition of pectin (enzymatic inducer) to the medium after the phase of intense cellular growth, use of vegetative inoculum and strategies to pH control. Additionally, the crude enzyme extract was characterized with respect to temperature and pH of reaction and used in Gala apple juice treatment. By using the cultivation medium formulated, which does not contain glucose, it was verified the decrease of the cellular growth without affecting the pectinase production and facilitating the control of the process parameters. The addition of pectin when the pH reached the value of 2.7 (22 hours) did not influence the fungal growth, noticing that the maximum cellular concentration (11.0 g/L) and the time that it occurred (48 hours) were similar to the ones obtained at the control condition, which had pectin in the medium since the beginning of the process (11.5 g/L at 41 hours). In this condition of enzyme inducer addition, the pectinase production was favored, reaching a maximum activity of 14 U/mL, ca. of 40% superior to that of control condition, at the same cultivation time (135 hours). The use of vegetative inoculum led to a decrease in the adaptation phase of the microorganism to the medium. Concentrations of 5 and 10% (v/v) enhanced the cellular growth; however, maximum enzyme activities of 5.5 and 3.8 U/mL were attained, which are lower than that obtained with spore inoculation (6.4 U/mL). In addition, it was not observed a reduction of the times in which the enzyme activity peaks occurred. In the cultivation with natural decrease of the initial pH 4.0 to the minimum reached (pH 2.5) and further control in this value, it was obtained maximum enzyme activity of 7.5 U/mL, which is higher than the ones obtained in the cultivation with pH controlled at minimum of 2.7 and in the cultivation with no pH control, of 6.4 and 3.5 U/mL, respectively. In shaken flasks cultivations, initial pH values of 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 resulted in highest values for the specific production factor (YP/X). In bioreactor cultivations with the pH controlled at these values along the process, it was verified that the cellular growth was favored at pH 3.0, with the maximum biomass concentration (10.2 g/L) attained about 90 hours before the peak observed in the run at constant pH 2.0 (7.7 g/L). On the other hand, pectinase production was favored in pH 2.0, with enzyme activity peak of 9.5 U/mL, which is higher than the ones obtained with constant pH of 3.0 and 4.0, of 4.7 and 2.0 U/mL, respectively. The strategy of cultivation conduction that enabled the highest enzyme activity of 13.2 U/mL was the use of initial pH 3.0, its control until the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium reached 30%, and then decreasing to 2,0 by adding H2SO4. In this condition, the cellular growth was not affected, resulting in high specific production factor (1.26 U/mg). The action of pectinolytic enzymes obtained in liquid cultivation was favored at pH 4.0 and temperature of 50°C. The stability of formed enzymes is favored at pH 3.0, being observed the maintenance of about 90% of the initial activity after 120 min of incubation. At 30, 40 and 50°C, after 180 minutes of exposure, 100% of the initial enzyme activity were maintained. The enzyme extracts obtained were used in enzymatic treatment of Gala apple juice and they had comparable effects to those observed after using commercial pectinolytic preparation. After the enzymatic treatment, it was identified 79% of apple juice clarification, with 98 and 10% of turbidity and viscosity reduction, respectively. The results obtained in this work show that the conditions assessed for submerged process effectively influence pectinase production and that these enzymes have potential to be used in formulations for fruit juices clarification.

Inulin is a non-digestible carbohydrate fructan polymer consisting mainly of β (1→2) fructosyl fructose links. Enzymatic hydrolysis of inulin by inulinase results in the production of low D.P (degree of polymerization) oligosaccharides also called fructooligosaccharides(FOS). Isolation of inulin from chicory root (Chicorium intybus) was achieved by first, extraction using deionized water (600C), followed by carbonation (0.1 M Ca(OH)2 and CO2 gas). This was filtered in order to remove the non sugars, thereafter, treated successfully with polyamide 6 powder. A cation exchanger and an anion exchanger were used to further exclude other components such as tannins and pigments. The extracted inulin was quantified using the Somogyi-Nelson colourimetric assay. Chicory root (207 g, 30 % being water) yielded 30 g of the raw extract. A 100 mg of the raw extract was assayed and found to contain 11 % yield of inulin which was 80.2 % in purity and 4 % free fructose. Analysis of the crude and purified inulin extracts on the MALDI TOF spectrometry showed the samples to have a DP of 2 to 22 and 2 to 27 respectively. Maximum inulinase production from Aspergillus niger grown on inulin was observed after 60 hours. The enzyme activity was found to be 1.168 U/ml with a temperature and pH optimum of 30 °C and 7.7 respectively. The enzyme proved to be unstable as it progressively lost its total activity during attempts at purification.

Background: Voriconazole is a first line agent for the treatment for invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. There are increasing reports of Aspergillus fumigatus isolates with reduced susceptibility to voriconazole. I investigated the pharmacodynamics of voriconazole against drug susceptible and drug resistant strains of Aspergillus fumigatus through the development of a novel dynamic in vitro model of the human alveolus. I then investigated whether combination therapy with voriconazole and anidulafungin would be beneficial in the treatment of infection with these isolates. Methods: An in vitro dynamic model of IPA was developed that enabled simulation of human-like voriconazole pharmacokinetics. Galactomannan was used as a biomarker. The pharmacodynamics of voriconazole against wild-type and three resistant strains of A. fumigatus were defined. The results were bridged to humans to provide decision support for setting breakpoints for voriconazole using Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and European Committee of Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) methodology. The interaction of voriconazole and anidulafungin in an in vitro static model was described using the Greco model. Results: Isolates with higher MICs required higher area under the concentration time curve (AUCs) to achieve suppression of galactomannan. An AUC:MIC using CLSI and EUCAST methodology that achieved suppression of galactomannan was 55 and 32.1, respectively. A trough concentration:MIC using CLSI and EUCAST methodology that achieved suppression of galactomannan was 1.68 and 1, respectively. Potential CLSI breakpoints for voriconazole are: susceptible ≤ 0.5 mg/L; resistant > 1 mg/L. Potential EUCAST breakpoints for voriconazole are: susceptible ≤ 1 mg/L; resistant > 2 mg/L. Galactomannan concentrations were only marginally reduced by anidulafungin monotherapy in the static model. An additive effect between voriconazole and anidulafungin was apparent. Conclusions: Voriconazole resistance mechanisms can be overcome with higher drug exposures, but this may require concentrations likely to cause toxicity in humans. The addition of anidulafungin does not markedly alter the exposure-response relationship of voriconazole. A rise in serum galactomannan during combination therapy with voriconazole and anidulafungin should be interpreted as treatment failure and not attributed to a paradoxical reaction related to echinocandin treatment. The dynamic in vitro model is a useful tool to address many remaining questions related to treatment of invasive fungal infection.

Tesis presentada a la Universidad de Chile para optar al grado académico de Magister en Bioquímica área de especialización en Bioquímica Ambiental y Memoria para optar al título profesional de Bioquímico / Memoria de título de bioquímico / No autorizada por el autor para ser publicada a texto completo / El hongo filamentoso Fusarium fujikuroi produce diversos metabolitos secundarios entre los que se encuentran las giberelinas (GAs), diterpenoides tetracíclicos derivados del ácido mevalónico de interés agronómico debido al efecto regulador que presentan sobre el crecimiento y desarrollo de las plantas. El interés comercial de estas moléculas y la alta eficiencia del sistema fúngico han llevado a caracterizar su biosíntesis a nivel de las reacciones químicas, las enzimas y los genes implicados en el proceso. La secuencia biosintética consiste principalmente en reacciones de oxidación, las que son catalizadas por monooxigenasas (MO) P450 codificadas por genes agrupados en un cluster. En este hongo la biosíntesis de GAs se induce en condiciones de carencia de compuestos nitrogenados y es inhibida por amonio o glutamina debido a la represión de los genes. Este mecanismo de regulación está mediado principalmente por el regulador global AREA, un factor de transcripción cuya actividad depende de los niveles de nitrógeno, aunque también podrían participar otros elementos regulatorios específicos para esta vía metabólica. Con el objeto de contribuir a la comprensión de los mecanismos de regulación de la biosíntesis de las GAs fúngicas, en este trabajo de Tesis se investigó si los genes de GAs de F. fujikuroi se expresan como proteínas activas en tres especies de hongos filogenéticamente relacionadas a F. fujikuroi: Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium graminearum y Aspergillus nidulans. Estos hongos no poseen los genes de la biosíntesis de GAs pero contienen el regulador global AREA. Interesó determinar si la complementación con el cluster de genes de F. fujikuroi es suficiente para generar la capacidad de biosintetizar GAs en estas especies y si las transformantes presentan el mecanismo de represión por amonio. Se caracterizó la producción de GAs en cultivos líquidos mediante cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas (GC-MS) y las actividades de las distintas oxidasas de GAs se ensayaron mediante sustratos marcados con [14C] e identificando los productos por cromatografía en capa fina y cromatografía líquida de alta resolución. Se encontró que las transformantes T6, T11 y T1 de F. oxysporum así como la transformante T2 de F. graminearum presentan la capacidad de biosintetizar GAs en un medio líquido carente de compuestos nitrogenados. Principalmente sintetizan GAs 3β-hidroxiladas y 19-γ10-lactónicas (19C) como GA4, GA7 y GA3, además algunas GAs no hidroxiladas (GA9, GA24, GA25) y entkaurenoides, que son productos laterales de la vía biosintética. Este patrón de productos corresponde al que presenta la cepa silvestre IMI28589 de F. fujikuroi, sistema fúngico que sintetiza GA3 como producto final a partir de intermediarios 3β-hidroxilados. Estos resultados indican que los genes de la biosíntesis de GAs de F. fujikuroi se expresan y generan enzimas activas tanto en F. oxysporum como en F. graminearum. En particular, la metabolización del ácido ent-[14C]kaurenoico hasta [14C]GA14 y posteriormente hasta [14C]GA3 demostró que la MO P450-1 (GA14 sintasa) presenta las actividades de 7-oxidasa y de 3β-hidroxilasa, como en F. fujikuroi. Por otra parte, la MO P450-2 (GA20 oxidasa) forma el producto lactónico [14C]GA9 y su derivado [14C]GA40, a partir del sustrato [14C]GA12. En estos ensayos también se detectaron las actividades de 13-hidroxilasa y de desaturasa aunque con diferentes proporciones en las distintas transformantes, en concordancia con el análisis de GAs endógenas. El efecto represor del nitrato de amonio se determinó a través de la actividad de la GA20 oxidasa en la transformante de F. graminearum T2, donde se encontró que la velocidad de utilización de [14C]GA12 fue 5 veces menor en un medio con nitrato de amonio 4,8 g/L que en un medio sin amonio, en forma similar a la cepa silvestre IMI28589 de F. fujikuroi (siete veces menor en presencia de amonio). Esto sugiere que estaría operativo en F. graminearum el mecanismo de represión por compuestos nitrogenados. Para la transformante T6 de F.oxysporum el resultado fue menos claro, ya que se obtuvieron productos en presencia de amonio que no corresponden a la lactona [14C]GA9 o a su derivado [14C]GA40 (los principales productos de la GA20 oxidasa). La identificación de los productos por GC-MS permitirá confirmar si corresponden a la actividad de oxidasas inespecíficas y si la represión por nitrato de amonio está presente en esta especie. A diferencia de las transformantes de F. oxysporum y de F. graminearum, en cultivos de la transformante de A. nidulans no se detectó actividad de ninguna de las oxidasas de GAs en los ensayos con los sustratos marcados con [14C]. Esto sugiere que los genes de F. fujikuroi no se expresarían en A. nidulans, una especie filogenéticamente más alejada de F. fujikuroi que F. oxysporum y F. graminearum, a pesar de que AREA está presente en esta especie. En conclusión, los resultados obtenidos sugieren que las dos especies de Fusarium investigadas, F. oxysporum y F. graminearum, contienen los elementos regulatorios (AREA y/u otros) requeridos para la expresión de los genes de la biosíntesis de GAs en condiciones de carencia de nitrógeno. Estos factores no serían específicos para esta vía, ya que se encontraron en dos especies fúngicas que no contienen genes de la biosíntesis de GAs y no sintetizan estos diterpenos. / The filamentous fungus Fusarium fujikuroi synthesizes several secondary metabolites including gibberellins (GAs), tetracyclic diterpenoids derived from mevalonic acid that have an agronomic interest since they are plant growth regulators. Because of the high efficiency of the fungal system and its commercial interest GA biosynthesis has been characterized at the level of chemical reactions, enzymes and genes. The fungal GA biosynthetic pathway is based on oxidative reactions catalyzed by P450 monooxygenases (MO) codified by a gene cluster. GA biosynthesis is induced in the absence of nitrogenated compounds and inhibited by ammonia or glutamine due to repression of gene expression. The global regulator AREA, a transcription factor dependent on nitrogen levels, mediates this effect, together with other possible specific regulatory elements. In order to contribute to the understanding of GA biosynthesis regulation in F. fujikuroi in this work we investigated if the F. fujikuroi GA biosynthesis genes are expressed as active enzymes in three fungal species phylogenetically related to F. fujikuroi: Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium graminearum and Aspergillus nidulans. These species do not contain the GA biosynthesis genes but contain the global regulator AREA. It was investigated if complementation with the F. fujikuroi gene cluster is enough to restore GA biosynthesis in these fungal species and if the transformants present ammonium repression of the GA genes as in F. fujikuroi. GA biosynthesis was determined in liquid cultures by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and the activities of GA oxidases were assayed with [14C]-labelled substrates by identifying the respective products by thin layer chromatography or high performance liquid chromatography. F. oxysporum transformants T6, T11 and T1 as well as F. graminearum T2 synthesized GAs in liquid cultures that do not contain nitrogenated compounds. These were mainly 19-γ10-lactonic, 3β-hydroxylated GAs (C19; GA4, GA7 and GA3) together with non-hydroxylated GAs (GA9, GA24,GA25) and ent-kaurenoids, lateral products of the GA biosynthetic pathway. This product pattern corresponds to that of the wild-type F. fujikuroi strain IMI28589 that synthesizes GA3 as final product from 3β-hydroxylated intermediates. These results demonstrate that the F. fujikuroi GA biosynthesis genes are expressed as active enzymes in F. oxysporum as well as in F. graminearum. Particularly the conversion of ent-[14C]kaurenoic acid into [14C]GA14 and further into [14C]GA3 demonstrated that in F. oxysporum and F. graminearum GA14 synthase presents 7- oxidase and 3β-hydroxylase activities as in F. fujikuroi. On the other hand, in these transformants GA20 oxidase gave the 19-γ10-lactonic product [14C]GA9 or its derivative [14C]GA40 from [14C]GA12. 13-hydroxylase and desaturase activities were also detected in these assays even when in different proportions in the distinct transformants in agreement with endogenous GA analysis. Ammonium nitrate repressor effect was investigated over GA20 oxidase that was assayed in F. graminearum T2 liquid cultures. The rate of [14C]GA12 conversion was found to be 5 times less in 4,8 g/L ammonium-containing media than in the absence of ammonium, similar to that found for F. fujikuroi IMI28589 cultures (7 times less [14C]GA12 conversion in media containing ammonia). This suggests that the mechanism of repression by nitrogenated compounds would be active in F. graminearum. For F. oxysporum T6 a less clear result was obtained since the products formed in the presence of 4,8 g/L ammonium nitrate do not include [14C]GA9 or [14C]GA40, the main products of GA20 oxidase. GC-MS identification of these products will allow to confirm if they correspond to unspecific oxidation products and if ammonium repression is also present in F. oxysporum. In contrast to F. oxysporum and F. graminearum, the cultures of A. nidulans complemented with the F. fujikuroi GA biosynthesis genes did not present activity of any of the GA oxidases in assays with ent-[14C]kaurenoic acid, [14C]GA12 or [14C]GA4. This suggests that the F. fujikuroi genes would not be expressed in A.nidulans, a species phylogenetically less related to F. fujikuroi, even when it contains AREA. Altogether, the results obtained suggest that the two Fusarium species investigated contain the regulatory elements required for the expression of the GA biosynthesis genes (AREA and/or others) in the absence of nitrogenated compounds. These factors would not be specific for the GA pathway since they are present in two fungal species that do not contain the GA biosynthesis genes and do not synthesize GAs. / Fondecyt

The main aim of this study was to find a plant extract or isolated compound that could be used to combat aspergillosis in animals. Aspergillus fumigatus is one of the most common pathogenic fungal species in humans and animals. A. fumigatus is also an economically important fungus in the poultry industry. Current treatment of the disease is hampered by drug resistance of the organism to conventional antifungals and also its widespread toxicity to the animals. Seven tree species that had good antifungal activity against Cryptococcus neoformans in the Phytomedicine Programme database were selected for further work. These tree species were: Combretum vendae A.E. van Wyk (Combretaceae), Commiphora harveyi (Engl.) Engl. (Burseraceae), Khaya anthotheca (Welm.) C.DC (Meliaceae), Kirkia wilmsii Engl. (Kirkiaceae), Loxostylis alata A. Spreng. ex Rchb. (Anacardiaceae), Ochna natalitia (Meisn.) Walp. (Ochnaceae) and Protorhus longifolia (Bernh. Ex C. Krauss) Engl. (Anacardiaceae). The antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of the selected plant species were determined against four important nosocomial bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and five important animal fungi (Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Microsporum canis and Sporothrix schenckii) using a serial microplate dilution method. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC), of an acetone extract of Loxostylis alata was the lowest against Aspergillus fumigatus with an MIC value of 0.05 mg/ml. The number of antifungal compounds in extracts was determined by bioautography. The acetone extract of L. alata had the most active zones (10). The antioxidant, antiplatelet and cytotoxic effects of the seven plant species were evaluated using established in vitro assays. All the extracts had comparably low toxicity except for the extract of C. harveyi that had high haemagluttination assay titre value, which indicates toxicity. The extracts of P. longifolia, K. wilmsii, O. natalitia, L. alata, C. harveyi and C. vendae contained antioxidant compounds in the qualitative assay using DPPH. In the quantification of antioxidation using ABTS, only the extracts of P. longifolia, L. alata, and C. vendae had substantial antioxidant activity with respective TEAC value of 1.39, 1.94 and 2.08. Similarly, in the quantitative DPPH assay, L. alata. (EC50, 3.58 ± 0.23 μg/ml) and K. wilmsii (EC50, 3.57 ± 0.41 μg/ml) did not differ significantly (p ≤ 0.05) from the positive control (L-ascorbic acid). K. anthotheca had a much lower antioxidant activity (EC<su>50 176.40 ± 26.56 μg/ml), and differed significantly (p ≤ 0.05) from all the other extracts and control. In addition, the extract of C. vendae and C. harveyi had significant (p ≤ 0.05) antiplatelet activity and did not differ from the control (aspirin) with EC50 of 0.06 ± 0.01 μg/ml, 0.19 ± 0.00 μg/ml, respectively. Lower EC50 values in the antioxidant and antiplatelet studies are indicative of superior activity of the plant extract against oxidation and platelet aggregation. Based on the results obtained L. alata was selected for further examination. To simplify the isolation of the antifungal compounds from the L. alata fractions the acetone extract was first separated into six different fractions based on polarity in a mild solvent-solvent fractionation process. The fractions were aqueous methanol, butanol, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, hexane and water fractions. The antimicrobial activities of the fractions as well as other relevant pharmacological tests on the different fractions were carried out. The number of antimicrobial compounds present in the aqueous methanol (AM), butanol (BT), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), chloroform (CC), hexane and water fractions was determined by bioautography. The CCl4 extract was active against six out of the 9 microbial strains used and was particularly active against S. aureus, E. faecalis, A. fumigatus, C. albicans, C. neoformans and M. canis with MIC of 0.04, 0.04, 0.1, 0.1, 0.06 and 0.03 mg/ml, respectively. Microsporum canis was the most sensitive organism with the lowest average MIC of 0.16 mg/ml. Qualitative antioxidation using DPPH and quantitative assay using both ABTS and DPPH radicals revealed the presence of several antioxidant compounds in the AM, BT and water fractions of Loxostylis alata. This supported the usefulness of L. alata in treating fungal diseases, as aspergillosis and most fungal infections are associated with immune depression of the host. Antioxidants may reverse several conditions associated with immune deficiencies, resulting in increased levels of interleukin-2, elevated numbers of total lymphocytes and T-cell subsets. Loxostylis alata is used in southern African traditional medicine to control labour pain and to boost the immune system. Extracts and compounds isolated from leaves of Loxostylis alata were therefore also evaluated for their in vitro antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory (cyclooxygenase-1 and -2) activities and evaluated for their potential toxic effects using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and Salmonella typhimurium tester strains TA98 and TA100. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated using a serial microdilution assay. The bacterial strains used were Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC29213), Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853) and Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922). The fungal strains used were Cryptococcus neoformans, Sporothrix schenckii, Aspergillus fumigatus, Microsporum canis and Candida albicans. A bioassay guided fractionation of the crude extract yielded two antimicrobial compounds namely, Lupeol and μ-sitosterol Lupeol had the most pronounced zone of inhibition against S. aureus and A. fumigatus., When MICs of the 2 compounds were determined, only lupeol had relatively good activity with MICs values ≤ 100 μg/ml against 8 out of 10 of the tested pathogens. However, β-sitosterol had activity against only S. aureus and E. coli with MICs values of 90 and 110 μg/ml, respectively. In addition β-sitosterol had selective inhibition of COX-1 (IC50 = 55.3 ± 2) None of the compounds isolated were toxic in the Salmonella typhimurium/microsome assay and MTT cytotoxicity test. The isolation of these two compounds is reported for the first time from Loxostylis alata. It was disappointing that the two antifungal compounds isolated from L. alata had such a low activity against Aspergillus fumigatus. This inhibits the development of a single compound that can be used therapeutically. Because the crude extract had very good activity we decided to investigate the safety and potential use of this extract in target animal species. At a dose of 300 mg/kg, the chicks had some signs of intoxication, but not at a dose of 200 mg/kg. Aspergillosis was induced experimentally, in broiler chicks. The degree of infection was assessed by comparing degree and severity of clinical signs, lesion scores and fungal re-isolation from treated chicks with those from infected chicks not treated with the extract. The extract at a dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg reduced significantly (p ≤ 0.05) the lesions due to aspergillosis and the amount of Aspergillus fumigatus isolated from infected chicks in an excellent dose related response.. The crude extract of L. alata leaves was as active as the commercially used ketoconazole against avian aspergillosis. It appears likely that the crude acetone extract could be produced at a much lower cost than ketoconazole or other chemical antimicrobial products. If these results can be confirmed in larger studies and if the crude extract does not have a negative effect on the production of the poultry the crude extract of L. alata may prove to be a viable and cost effective alternative to using current antimicrobial products. This study proves that it may be worthwhile to invest human and financial resources in searching for plant related products than can increase animal health and productivity. Copyright / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Paraclinical Sciences / unrestricted

Die invasive Aspergillose spielt in der modernen Medizin und speziell bei malignen Bluterkrankungen, die mit einer Immunsuppression des Patienten einhergehen, eine entscheidende Rolle. Die bisherigen Methoden erlauben eine Diagnose meist erst sehr spät oder liefern oft falsch-negative Ergebnisse. Bis zum heutigen Tag ist es nicht gelungen, ein standardisiertes Verfahren zur PCR-Diagnostik aus Blutproben zu etablieren. In den der Arbeit zugrunde liegenden Versuchsreihen wurden verschiedene Ansätze an Mastermix im Monoplex- und Duplexformat zur Aspergillus fumigatus-Detektion in Humanserum getestet und optimiert. Es wurde versucht, eine Extraktionskontrolle mit Bacillus subtilis in die Probe zu integrieren, um so die Aussagekraft der extrahierten Probe zu evaluieren. Dabei zeigte sich ein Elutionsvolumen von 35 µl am effizientesten. Der Cq-Wert war bei 35 µl Eluationsvolumen ca. einen Zyklus niedriger als bei 65 µl und 1,5-2 Zyklen niedriger als bei 100 µl. Bei den Versuchen im Monoplexformat konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei der Extraktion viel DNA in den Filtern zurückbleibt. Es wurden aus einer Serumextraktion zwei Eluate mit je 35 µl Elutionsvolumen erstellt und getestet. Hier zeigten sich in Abhängigkeit von der Menge der DNA teils hohe Cq-Werte im zweiten Eluat, bei einigen Proben aber sogar ein niedrigerer Cq-Wert im zweiten Eluat. Dies war sowohl für Aspergillus fumigatus als auch für Bacillus subtilis zu beobachten. Die Gründe für dieses Ergebnis könnten die längere Inkubationszeit und die zweite Zentrifugation des zweiten Eluats sein. Die Extraktionseffizienz hatte bei der Aufbereitung mit dem QIAamp Ultrasens Kit (Qiagen) einen Faktor von im Mittel 2,7 bei Aspergillus fumigatus und von 4,7 bei Bacillus subtilis beim GEX-Mastermix. Beim Sso-Mastermix lag der Faktor für Aspergillus fumigatus im Mittel bei 4,4 und der für Bacillus subtilis bei 5,4. Bei den Versuchen im Duplexformat wurden sowohl Aspergillus fumigatus als auch Bacillus subtilis in unterschiedlichen Konzentrationen in dieselbe Probe eingebracht. Hier zeigte sich, dass im Sso-Mastermix die Menge an Bacillus subtilis-DNA und an Aspergillus fumigatus-DNA einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die jeweiligen Cq-Werte und die Sensitivität haben. Zusätzlich zeigte der Sso-Mastermix immer ein positives Ergebnis für Bacillus subtilis zwischen 36-40 Zyklen. Beim GEX-Mastermix hatte die Menge an Bacillus subtilis-DNA ebenfalls einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die Cq-Werte und die Sensitivität für Aspergillus fumigatus. Die Cq-Werte für Aspergillus fumigatus erhöhten sich bei 10 Kopien mit 104 Kopien Bacillus subtilis um 6,1 Zyklen und bei 105 Kopien Bacillus subtilis um 10,6 Zyklen im GEX-Mastermix. Ein Einfluss auf die Cq-Werte für Bacillus subtilis konnte bei den Versuchen im Duplexformat mit GEX-Mastermix nicht verzeichnet werden. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass eine Extraktionskontrolle mit Bacillus subtilis im Sso-Mastermix auf Grund der sich gegenseitig beeinflussenden Sonden und Primer sowie der DNA-Mengen an Aspergillus fumigatus und Bacillus subtilis nicht möglich ist, da keine Aussage über den Verlauf und die Effizienz der Extraktion getroffen werden könnte. Bei den Versuchen mit GEX-Mastermix konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Menge an eingegebener Bacillus subtilis-DNA einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die Sensitivität für die Cq-Werte von Aspergillus fumigatus in niedriger Konzentration hat. Einen Einfluss auf die Cq-Werte für Bacillus subtilis wurde nicht detektiert. Eine Extraktionskontrolle mittels Bacillus subtilis wäre denkbar, wenn die Menge eingegebener Bacillus subtilis-DNA so reduziert werden könnte, dass stabile Cq-Werte für Bacillus subtilis erreicht würden, die dann aber keinen oder nur einen sehr geringen Einfluss auf die Sensitivität für Aspergillus fumigatus hätten. / In the test series on which the work is based, various approaches to mastermix in monoplex and duplex format for Aspergillus fumigatus detection in human serum were tested and optimized. An attempt was made to integrate an extraction control with Bacillus subtilis into the sample in order to evaluate the meaningfulness of the extracted sample.

Der ubiquitär vorkommende Schimmelpilz Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus) ist Haupterreger der invasiven Aspergillose (IA). Diese invasive Pilzinfektion tritt gehäuft bei Patienten mit immunsuppressiver Langzeit-Therapie z. B. nach allogener Stammzelltransplantation zur Prophylaxe und Therapie der Graft-versus-Host-Disease (GvHD) auf. Trotz der in-vitro-Suszeptibilität der Pilze gegenüber verschiedenen Antimykotika ist die Erkrankung in diesem Patientenkollektiv weiterhin mit einer hohen Letalität assoziiert. Neben ihren direkten, antifungalen Eigenschaften wurden durch Antimykotika auch indirekte, modulierende Wirkungen auf die Funktionalität von Immunzellen beschrieben, die damit möglicherweise das therapeutische Ansprechen dieser Erkrankung beeinflussen. Insbesondere neutrophile Granulozyten (PMN) spielen als Teil der angeborenen Immunität durch ihre Vielzahl an Abwehrmechanismen eine essentielle Rolle für die Bekämpfung von invasiven Pilzinfektionen und damit der IA. Von zusätzlicher Bedeutung und bislang kaum untersucht ist das kombinierte Einwirken von Antimykotika und Immunsuppressiva auf die Funktionalität dieser Zellen. In dieser Arbeit wurde daher in-vitro der Einfluss klinisch eingesetzter Antimykotika zur Therapie der IA (liposomales Amphotericin B bzw. Amphotericin B – Desoxycholat, Voriconazol) auf wichtige Effektorfunktionen humaner neutrophiler Granulozyten nach Exposition gegenüber A. fumigatus untersucht. Im Fokus stand hierbei die Analyse des oxidativen Burst, der Interleukin (IL)-8-Freisetzung, der Bildung von neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) sowie der Phagozytose-Aktivität dieser Immunzellen. Außerdem wurde der Effekt einer zusätzlichen Gabe klinisch relevanter Immunsuppressiva (Ciclosporin A / Mycophenolat-Mofetil, Prednisolon), die zur Prophylaxe und Therapie der akuten GvHD eingesetzt werden, auf diese vier Funktionen evaluiert. Zusammenfassend ergaben unsere Analysen keinen Anhalt für eine relevante Beeinflussung des oxidativen Burst, der IL-8-Freisetzung und der Phagozytose-Aktivität neutrophiler Granulozyten durch die untersuchten Antimykotika, insbesondere gegenüber A. fumigatus. Weiterhin wurden in dieser Arbeit keine signifikanten Differenzen zwischen dem Einfluss von liposomalem Amphotericin B und Amphotericin B - Desoxycholat beobachtet. Durch Prednisolon konnten überwiegend bereits bekannte, immunsuppressive Wirkungen auf PMN bestätigt sowie zusätzlich Hinweise auf eine Modulation Antimykotika-vermittelter Immuneffekte durch Immunsuppressiva gewonnen werden. Die kurze Exposition der PMN gegenüber Ciclosporin A / Mycophenolat-Mofetil ergab keine signifikanten Veränderungen der Sekretion von reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies. Des Weiteren unterstützen unsere Daten Hinweise auf differente Aktivierungsmechanismen von verschiedenen Effektorfunktionen der PMN. Im Gegensatz zu den anderen untersuchten Funktionen konnte in dieser Arbeit eine signifikant verminderte Bildung von NETs durch liposomales Amphotericin B, Amphotericin B - Desoxycholat und auch Voriconazol beobachtet werden. Damit geben unsere Ergebnisse Anlass zu tiefergehenden Analysen des Zusammenspiels von Antimykotika insbesondere mit dem noch immer wenig verstandenen Mechanismus der Auslösung und Bildung von NETs. Zudem wären weitere Studien wünschenswert, um einen umfassenderen Überblick und ein besseres Verständnis auch hinsichtlich anderer invasiver Pilzinfektionen sowie weiterer Abwehrmechanismen zu erhalten. / Aspergillus fumigatus (A. fumigatus), an opportunistic pathogenic mould, is the most common pathogen to cause invasive aspergillosis (IA). This invasive fungal infection occurs primarily in patients with long-term immunosuppressive therapy, e.g. after haematopoetic stem cell transplantation during prophylaxis and treatment of graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD). Despite in vitro susceptibility to different antifungal drugs, IA is still associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Besides their well-known, direct antifungal properties, antifungal drugs have been reported to interfere with immune response mechanisms, thereby possibly affecting therapeutic outcome. In particular, neutrophils with their broad arsenal of antifungal mechanisms are essential in the innate immune response against invasive fungal infections, including IA. The combined influence of antifungal and immunosuppressive agents is of additional importance and has not been subject to much investigation. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize the in vitro influence of clinically relevant antifungal agents for therapy of IA (liposomal amphotericin B, amphotericin B deoxycholate, voriconazole) on major effector functions of human neutrophils in response to A. fumigatus, particularly oxidative burst, release of interleukin-8 (IL-8), formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and phagocytic activity. Moreover, we assessed the combined effects of antifungals and clinically relevant immunosuppressive agents commonly used for prophylaxis and treatment of GvHD (ciclosporin A / mycophenolate-mofetil, prednisolone) on these four effector functions. In conclusion, our findings are not indicative of major impairment or enhancement of oxidative burst, IL-8-release or phagocytosis response of neutrophils to A. fumigatus in presence of the studied antifungal agents. Our results did not show significant differences between liposomal and conventional amphotericin B. We were able to confirm immunosuppressive effects of prednisolone on neutrophils, and observe a modulation of antifungal-mediated immunological effects through prednisolone. Short-time exposure of neutrophils to ciclosporin A / mycophenolate-mofetil did not cause significant alterations in oxidative burst response to A. fumigatus. However, our data provide indications of different activation patterns for distinct effector functions of neutrophils. In contrast to the other effector functions, this study reports a significantly lowered formation of NETs in presence of LAmB, d-AmB, or voriconazole. Therefore, these findings should give rise to a more in-depth analysis of the interference of these antifungal drugs with the still poorly understood mechanisms of NEToses induction and trap formation. Further research is necessary to acquire a deeper knowledge of other invasive fungal infections and further effector mechanisms.

An efficient approach to combat the accumulation of aflatoxin is the development of germplasm resistant to infection and spread of A. flavus in maize, one of the most important cereal grains in the world. Lipoxygenases (LOXs) are a group enzymes that catalyze oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). LOX derived oxilipins play critical roles in plant defense against pathogens such as A. flavus. The objectives of this study were to report sequence diversity and expression patterns for all LOX genes, and map their effect on aflatoxin accumulation via linkage and association mapping. Genes GRMZM2G102760 (ZmLOX 5) and GRMZM2G104843 (ZmLOX 8) fell under previously published QTL in one of four mapping populations and appear to have a measurable effect on the reduction of aflatoxin in maize grains. The association mapping result shows 19 of the total 215 SNPs found within the sequence of the ZmLOXs were associated with reduced aflatoxin levels.

Understanding the role of phytohormone auxin in defense responses is one of the vital tools for plant breeders to develop maize germplasm lines that exhibit high resistance to Aspergillus flavus and subsequent aflatoxin accumulation. Besides its critical role in different developmental processes throughout the life cycle of plants, auxin is also involved in the network of plant-pathogen interaction as demonstrated in previous studies. However, the actual mechanism for the auxin signaling pathway leading to resistance is unknown. Therefore, the critical gap in the knowledge base is a lack of understanding of the role of auxin signaling in pathogen resistance in maize. Continuation of this gap is an important problem because fungal resistance is a highly quantitative trait and breeding for resistance is a challenge. A complete understanding of the auxin mechanism in resistance could lead the production of corn hybrids with resistance to A. flavus and aflatoxin accumulation. The focus of this research was to determine the effect of exogenous auxin on A. flavus growth and production of aflatoxin in growth media. In addition, auxin levels, the amount of aflatoxin, and fungal growth in three resistant (Mp313E, Mp715, and Mp719) and one susceptible (B73) germplasm line were determined. As a result, auxin significantly increased mycelium growth and significantly decreased aflatoxin at a high concentration in potato dextrose broth under the lab conditions. Under the field conditions, auxin levels were low in resistant lines but did not change in response to A. flavus infection. Susceptible line had high auxin levels and auxin levels significantly decreased in response to A. flavus infection.