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Dans le cerveau, les astrocytes sont les cellules gliales les plus abondantes et elles jouent divers rôles, y compris le maintien des synapses tripartites et la régulation du débit sanguin cérébral (DSC). Le monoxyde d’azote (NO) est une molécule de signal endogène qui a un impact sur la régulation de l'activité synaptique et du DSC. Des études antérieures ont démontré que le NO est produit dans les cellules endothéliales et les neurones par la synthase du monoxyde d’azote endothéliale (eNOS) et neuronale (nNOS), respectivement. Cependant, la source de production de NO dans les astrocytes reste incertaine. Par conséquent, nous proposons que la voie de signalisation NOS constitutive puisse coexister dans les astrocytes et puisse être activée par différents neurotransmetteurs. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'identifier les sources et les activateurs de la production de NO dans les astrocytes corticaux de la souris. L'identification des isoformes constitutives de NOS effectuée au moyen de la microscopie électronique et d'immunohistochimie a révélé l’expression des eNOS et nNOS dans les astrocytes. Des préparations de culture d'astrocytes et de tranches de cerveau marquées avec du diacétate de 4-amino-5-méthylamino-2',7'-difluorescéine (DAF-FM), un indicateur de NO perméable aux cellules qui devient imperméable une fois à l’intérieur ont été réalisées. Cette fonctionnalité a été mise à profit pour évaluer la production de NO exclusivement dans les astrocytes en utilisant la microscopie confocale à uni- et multi-photons. De plus, des agonistes cholinergiques ou glutamatergiques qui ont la capacité d’augmenter la concentration de Ca2+ intracellulaire peuvent induire une production du NO in vitro et ex vivo dans les astrocytes, qui est supprimée en présence de l'inhibiteur de NOS non sélectif, L-NG -Nitro-arginine. Fait intéressant, la réponse NO à l’acétylcholine était absente chez les souris eNOS-/-, tandis que l'acide trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylique (t-ACPD) a peu affecté la production de NO chez les souris nNOS-/-. Ces résultats impliquent que les eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires peuvent être déclenchés par des cascades d'activation distinctes (cholinergique et glutamatergique métabotrope). En outre, les études sur la mobilisation cytosolique du Ca2+ indiquent l'importance du réticulum endoplasmique comme réservoir de Ca2+ pour la production de NO, et suggèrent aussi une voie de signalisation astrocytaire qui, une fois activée par le t- ACPD, provoque l'efflux de Ca2+ médié par le récepteur à la ryanodine, qui à son tour active les nNOS adjacents et conduit à la production de NO. Par ailleurs, la superfusion de préparations in vitro et ex vivo avec du N-Méthyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) a provoqué une augmentation du NO tant dans les souris eNOS-/- que nNOS-/-, ce qui indique l'implication des eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires. La production de NO a été atténuée par l'inhibition du complexe PSD-95 / nNOS ce qui suggère que le récepteur NMDA astrocytaire rend fonctionnelle la cassette de signalisation NR2B/PSD-95/nNOS. En conclusion, nos résultats démontrent que : i) les astrocytes corticaux expriment à la fois eNOS et nNOS; ii) la nNOS cytosolique colocalise avec les récepteurs 2 et 3 de la ryanodine, alors que les nNOS membranaires colocalisent avec le récepteur NMDA contenant le NR2B; iii) la stimulation neuronale a la capacité d'induire la production de NO par les eNOS et nNOS astrocytaires par des voies de signalisation différentes; iv) l'activation des nNOS cytosoliques nécessite une activation des récepteurs à la ryanodine. Collectivement, ces données suggèrent une production de NO compartimentée et spécifique après une stimulation neuronale probablement dans le but de réguler finement et de façon polarisée les fonctions astrocytaires. Ce travail fournit un nouvel aperçu des conséquences physiologiques pour les fonctions neuronales et vasculaires et améliore notre compréhension de la fonction NO astrocytaire dans le cerveau. / In the brain, astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells and play various roles including maintenance of tripartite synapses and regulation of CBF. An endogenous signal molecule that has a potential to have an effect on regulation of both synaptic activity and CBF is nitric oxide (NO). Previous studies have demonstrated that NO is produced in endothelial cells and neurons by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), respectively. However, the source of NO production in astrocyte remains uncertain. Therefore, we propose that constitutive NOS signalling pathways may exist in astrocyte and can be activated by different neurotransmitters. The aim of this thesis is to identify the sources and activators of NO production in mouse cortical astrocytes. Identification of constitutive NOS isoforms done by means of electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry revealed the expression of both eNOS and nNOS in astrocytes. All preparations were performed in astrocyte cultures and brain slice preparations labeled with 4- amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorescein (DAF-FM) diacetate, a cell-permeant NO indicator that becomes cell-impermeable once inside cells. Therefore, I took advantage of this feature to evaluate NO production exclusively in astrocytes using single and multi-photon confocal microscopy. We then tested whether cholinergic and glutamatergic agonists that have the capacity to increase intracellular Ca2+ concentration can induce an increase in astrocytic NO. Both in vitro and ex vivo, NO production levels indicate that cholinergic and glutamatergic stimulations can induce astrocytic NO increases, which was abolished by the non-selective NOS inhibitor L- NG -Nitro-arginine. Moreover, the NO response to ACh was absent in eNOS-/- mice, while trans-1-aminocyclopentane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (t-ACPD) barely affected NO production in nNOS-/- mice. These results imply that astrocytic eNOS and nNOS can be triggered discretely by distinct activation cascades (cholinergic and metabotropic glutamatergic). Furthermore, studies on cytosolic Ca2+ mobilization point out the importance of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ as key in the mechanism of NO production, and suggests a signalling pathway that t-ACPD causes IP3Rs to elicit RyRs-mediated Ca2+ efflux, which in turn, activates adjacent nNOS and leads to NO production. Furthermore, superfusion of in vitro and ex vivo preparations with N-Methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) evoked an increase in NO in eNOS-/- and nNOS-/- mice. The NO production was attenuated through removal of PSD-95/nNOS complex. This result posits that astrocytic NMDA receptor may comprise the functional NR2B/PSD- 95/nNOS signalling cassette. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that: i) cortical astrocytes express both eNOS and nNOS; ii) nNOS colocalizes with ryanodine receptor 2 and 3, whereas membrane nNOS colocalizes with NR2B-containing NMDA receptor; iii) neuronal stimulation has the capacity of inducing eNOS- and nNOS-produced NO in astrocytes via different activation signalling; iv) activation of cytosolic nNOS requires the activation of ryanodine receptors. Collectively, these data suggest a compartmentalized and specific NO production following neuronal stimulation probably for a fine and polarized regulation of astrocytic functions. This work provides new insight into physiological consequences for neuronal and vascular functions and ameliorates our understanding of astrocytic NO function in the brain.

The aim of the work described in this thesis is to investigate the nature and mechanisms of action of repellent cues for growing axons. In particular I try to resolve the controversy in the literature regarding the need for protein synthesis in the growth cone in response to external guidance cues. My results resolve the conflicting data in the literature on Semaphorin-3A signalling, where differing labs had shown that inhibiting protein synthesis either blocks or has no effect upon repulsion. They demonstrate the presence of at least two independent pathways, protein synthesis-dependent mTOR activation and -independent GSK3? activation. The higher sensitivity of the synthesis-dependent pathway, and its redundancy at higher concentrations where synthesis-independent mechanisms can evoke a full collapse response alone, resolve the apparent conflict. My experiments also demonstrated that Nogo-?20, a domain of Nogo-A, requires local protein synthesis to cause collapse. Unlike Semaphorin-3A, the dependence of collapse upon protein synthesis is concentration-independent and does not involve guanylyl cyclase, but it does share a dependence upon mTOR activity and the synthesis of RhoA, sufficient to cause collapse downstream of Semaphorin-3A. The other axon-repelling domain of Nogo-A, Nogo-66, is partially dependent upon the proteasome instead. It does not share a common pathway with Nogo-?20, except that both are RhoA-dependent. I further attempted to identify the nature of a repulsive activity found in grey matter, ruling out a previously suggested candidate identity. Finally, I examined the phenomenon of nitric oxide-induced growth cone collapse. My experiments revealed that S-nitrosylated glutathione causes growth cone collapse through the activity of protein disulphide isomerase. This mechanism shows only a partial dependence upon soluble guanylyl cyclase, but I argue that it has total dependence upon an S-nitrosylated donor. Coupled with its apparent relation to S-palmitoylation, the reciprocal of S-nitrosylation, I propose that nitric oxide causes collapse by crossing the cell membrane to inhibit S-palmitoylation-determined localisation of proteins. These results reveal some of the many pathways involved in growth cone collapse, whose further characterisation may provide new targets for the treatment of injuries of the central nervous system.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Approximately 2.8% of the world population is currently infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). Neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) are often generated in chronic hepatitis C patients yet fail to control the infection. In the first two chapters of this study, we focused on two alternative routes of HCV transmission, which may contribute to HCV’s immune evasion and establishment of chronic infection. HCV was transmitted via a cell-cell contact-mediated (CCCM) route and in the form of exosomes. Formation of HCV infection foci resulted from CCCM HCV transfer and was cell density-dependent. Moreover, CCCM HCV transfer occurred rapidly, involved all four known HCV receptors and intact actin cytoskeleton, and led to productive HCV infection. Furthermore, live cell imaging revealed the temporal and spatial details of the transfer process. Lastly, HCV from HCV-infected hepatocytes and patient plasma occurred in both exosome-free and exosome-associated forms and the exosome-associated HCV remained infectious, even though HCV infection did not significantly alter exosome secretion. In the third chapter, we characterized HCV interaction with astrocytes, one of the putative HCV target cells in the brain. HCV infection causes the central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities in more than 50% of chronically infected subjects but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. We showed that primary human astrocytes (PHA) were very inefficiently infected by HCV, either in the free virus form or through cell-cell contact. PHA expressed all known HCV receptors but failed to support HCV entry. HCV IRES-mediated translation was functional in PHA and further enhanced by miR122 expression. Nevertheless, PHA did not support HCV replication regardless of miR122 expression. To our great surprise, HCV exposure induced robust IL-18 expression in PHA and exhibited direct neurotoxicity. In summary, we showed that CCCM HCV transfer and exosome-mediated HCV infection constituted important routes for HCV infection and dissemination and that astrocytes did not support productive HCV infection and replication, but HCV interactions with astrocytes and neurons alone might be sufficient to cause CNS dysfunction. These findings provide new insights into HCV infection of hepatocytes and astrocytes and shall aid in the development of new and effective strategies for preventing and treating HCV infection.