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In response to the augmented haemodynamic load placed upon the heart by intense and prolonged exercise, various forms of physiological remodelling are elicited. The resultant cardiac structural, functional and electrical adaptations are coined the athlete’s heart. Due to the nature of the remodelling, in some cases these adaptations may however overlap with the diagnostic criteria for varying pathological conditions, often related to sudden cardiac death. Several variables are associated with the athlete’s heart including age, sex, sport, body size, and ethnicity. Ethnicity is of particular importance as athletes of an African/Afro-Caribbean ethnicity demonstrate a greater prevalence of abnormal changes suggestive of pathology. There is however paucity in the literature of the athlete’s heart among other ethnicities. For this reason Study 1 investigated the impact of Arabic ethnicity upon the structure, function and electrophysiology of the heart in male athletes. Study 1 identified that while Arabic athletes had larger hearts than Arabic controls, they had significantly smaller hearts than their Black and Caucasian athletic counterparts. While Black athletes had a significantly greater prevalence of training unrelated/abnormal ECG findings, Arabic and Caucasian both had similar levels of training unrelated/abnormal findings, suggesting the European Society of Cardiology guidelines for ECG interpretation in athletes are applicable for the ethnicity. Study 2 investigated another important facet of the athlete’s heart, which is body size. Study 2 identified that while there was a progressive relationship between body size and cardiac dimensions, the previously identified upper limits of cardiac structural remodelling were applicable even among those with a body surface area (BSA) over 2.3m2. Among the cohort of athletes with a BSA >2.3m2, Black athletes demonstrated significantly greater wall thickness’ than Caucasian and Arabic athletes. The second aspect to the thesis highlighted how the findings of Study 1 and 2 impact upon pre-participation screening. While debate still exists around the most effective methodology to screen for pathological cardiac conditions, several organisations mandate the use of the echocardiography alongside the resting 12-Lead ECG. Study 3 established that should echocardiography be limited to use as a follow up investigation, significant cost benefits could be elicited (47% reduction). The premise of this significant cost reduction was that no pathological case was identified by echocardiography in isolation. While still found to be useful in confirming pathology, significantly, in our study the investigation failed to identify two cases of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Study 4 investigated the implications of adopting modified ECG interpretation guidelines in light of the criticism that ECG screening should be avoided due to a high false positive rate. Utilising an ethnically diverse cohort, Study 4 demonstrated that using the ‘Refined’ criteria reduced the false positive rate from 22% when using the 2010 ESC guidelines to 5%. Importantly both criteria achieved 100% sensitivity, highlighting the importance of the ECG in cardiovascular screening.

Submitted by Irene Nascimento (irene.kessia@ufpe.br) on 2016-07-21T18:56:02Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO - HIPERTROFIA CARDÍACA EM ATLETAS DE FUTEBOL.pdf: 1232873 bytes, checksum: ba768f7a453ba087bc8e123924b2c931 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-21T18:56:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) DISSERTAÇÃO - HIPERTROFIA CARDÍACA EM ATLETAS DE FUTEBOL.pdf: 1232873 bytes, checksum: ba768f7a453ba087bc8e123924b2c931 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-01 / As atividades desenvolvidas no treinamento para o futebol profissional são propícias para sobrecarregar o sistema cardiovascular. As modificações fisiológicas no padrão fenotípico cardíaco, experimentadas em atletas, são reconhecidas popularmente como “coração do atleta”. Na população feminina, este padrão é pouco conhecido pela escassez de trabalhos com grupos de indivíduos desta modalidade e gênero, e as comparações destes padrões adaptativos morfológicos e funcionais cardíacos entre os gêneros são desconhecidas no futebol. Métodos: essa dissertação foi dividida em seis capítulos. No primeiro capítulo, Apresentação, contextualizamos o nível crescente de exigência nos treinamentos para a prática de futebol profissional em ambos os gêneros caracterizando essa prática esportiva como de potencial para sobrecarregar o sistema cardiovascular. Realizamos uma revisão abrangente da literatura dividindo-a em: A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e o “coração do atleta”; Indução de respostas adaptativas do sistema cardiovascular; A análise ecocardiográfica e A miocardiopatia hipertrófica. O segundo capítulo, descreve, dentre os Objetivos gerais, a comparação das respostas adaptativas cardíacas de jogadores de futebol profissional entre os gêneros masculino e feminino. São apresentados também os objetivos específicos do trabalho. O terceiro capítulo engloba as Hipóteses que norteiam a pesquisa. O quarto capítulo, intitulado Materiais e Métodos, descreve o desenho da pesquisa realizada, em corte transversal, no laboratório de ecocardiografia do Hospital Dom Helder Camara/IMIP-PE, com atletas profissionais de futebol e não-atletas voluntários de ambos os gêneros. Avaliamos medidas antropométricas e variáveis ecocardiográficas da morfologia e função cardíaca. Este capítulo descreve também como a análise estatística foi realizada. O quinto capítulo Resultados, é apresentado em forma de Artigo original, intitulado “Comparing the magnitude of cardiac hypertrophy between genders in professional soccer players” onde demonstramos que os atletas de ambos os gêneros apresentaram aumento significativo do átrio esquerdo (MA: 1,88±0,12 x MN:1,68±0,43 e FA: 1,88±0,20 x FN:1,79±0,18 cm/m2), do índice de massa ventricular esquerda (MA: 121,65±20,23 x MN:99,84±13,80 e FA: 91,77±22,05 x FN:72,28±10,46 g/m2), diâmetro diastólico final do ventrículo esquerdo (MA: 2,81±0,26 x MN:2,55±0,66 e FA: 2,86±0,25 x FN:2,74±0,22 cm/m2), da espessura do septo interventricular (MA: 0,45±0,04 x MN:0,40±0,11 e FA: 0,47±0,06 x FN:0,41±0,04 cm/m2) e da parede posterior do ventrículo esquerdo (MA: 0,43±0,04 x MN:0,39±0,10 e FA: 0,44±0,06 x FN:0,39±0,04 cm/m2) em relação aos controles (p<o,o5). No sexto capítulo, Considerações finais, concluímos que os atletas de futebol experimentam um fenômeno adaptativo caracterizado por um padrão de remodelamento das câmaras cardíacas esquerdas semelhante em ambos os gêneros, representado por aumento tanto do diâmetro do átrio quanto do ventrículo esquerdo, o qual apresenta um padrão próprio e balanceado de hipertrofia, com componentes concêntrico e excêntrico, e esta adaptação se faz com a mesma magnitude entre os gêneros. O conhecimento desse padrão de alteração pode ser útil no diagnóstico diferencial entre patologias cardíacas. / The activities developed in training for professional soccer are conducive to overload the cardiovascular system. The physiological changes in cardiac phenotypic standard, experienced in athletes, are recognized popularly as "athlete's heart". In the female population, this pattern is less known due to few studies with this type and gender of individuals, and comparisons of these morphological and functional cardiac adaptive patterns between genders are unknown. Methods: this dissertation was divided into six chapters. In the first chapter, Presentation, we contextualize the growing level of demand in training for the practice of professional soccer in both genders characterizing this sports practice as potential to overload the cardiovascular system. In the second chapter we conducted a comprehensive review of the literature dividing it into: Left ventricular hypertrophy and "athlete's heart"; Induction of adaptive responses cardovascular system; Echocardiographic analysis and the Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The second chapter describes, among the General objectives, the comparison of cardiac adaptive responses of professional soccer players among males and females. Also presents the Specific objectives of the work. The third chapter includes the Hypothesis that guide the search, The fourth chapter, entitled Materials and Methods, describes the design of the survey, conducted in cross-section in the echocardiography laboratory of the Dom Helder Camara Hospital/IMIP-PE, with professional athletes soccer and volunteers non-athletes of both genders. We evaluated anthropometric measurements and echocardiographic variable morphology and cardiac function. This chapter also describes the statistical analysis performed. The fith chapter, Results, presented in the form of original article, entitled "Comparing the magnitude of cardiac hypertrophy between genders in professional soccer players" where demonstrated that athletes of both genders showed significant enlargement of the left atrium (MA: 1.88 ± 0.12 vs MN: 1.68 ± 0.43 and FA: 1.88 ± 0.20 vs. FN: 1.79 ± 0.18 cm/m2), the left ventricular mass index (MA: 121.65 ± 20.23 vs. MN: 99.84 ± 13.80 and FA: 91.77 ± 22.05 vs. FN: 72.28 ± 10.46 cm/m2), end-diastolic diameter of the left ventricle (MA: 2.81 ± 0.26 vs MN: 2.55 ± 0.66 and FA: 2.86 ± 0.25 vs FN: 2.74 ± 0 22 cm/m2), the septal thickness (MA: 0.45 ± 0.04 vs MN: 0.40 ± 0.11 and FA: 0.47 ± 0.06 vs FN: 0.41 ± 0.04 cm/m2) and posterior wall thickness of the left ventricle (MA: 0.43 ± 0.04 vs. MN: 0.39 ± 0.10 and FA: 0.44 ± 0.06 vs FN: 0.39 ± 0.04 cm/m2). compared to controls (p <o,o5). In the sixth chapter, Final considerations, we conclude that the soccer players experience an adaptive phenomenon characterized by a remodeling pattern of the left cardiac chambers similar in both genders, represented by increase in both the atrium diameters as the left ventricle, which shows an own pattern and balanced hypertrophy with concentric and eccentric components, and this adaptation is made with the same magnitude between genders. Knowing this pattern of change can be useful in the differential diagnosis of cardiac pathologies.

Intensive training is associated with hemodynamic changes that typically induce an enlargement of cardiac chamber. Despite LA dilatation in athletes has been interpreted as a benign adaptation, little evidence is available. The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate that LA size changes in response to alterations in loading conditions and to analyse atrial myocardial function in athletes through the application of novel echocardiographic techniques. We found that top-level athletes exhibit a dynamic morphological and functional LA remodelling, induced by training, with an increase in reservoir and conduit volumes, but stable active volume. Training causes an increase in biatrial volumes which is accompanied by normal filling pressures and stiffness. These changes in atrial morphology are not associated with respective electrical changes. Extending the evidence from adult athletes to children, we found that training-induced atrial remodelling can occur in the early phases of the sports career and is associated with a preserved biatrial function. Finally, in a meta-analysis study of the available evidence we demonstrated that atrial function and size are not affected by aging. In conclusions, athlete’s heart is characterized by a physiological biatrial enlargement. This adaptation occurs in close association with LV cavity enlargement, is dynamic and reversible. This increase in biatrial size is not intrinsically an expression of atrial dysfunction. Indeed, in athletes the atria are characterized by a preserved reservoir function, normal myocardial stiffness, and dynamic changes in response to different loading conditions.

O objetivo desse estudo foi verificar as repercussões clínicas e na capacidade cardiopulmonar, resultantes das alterações agudas morfofuncionais cardíacas e dos marcadores de injúria miocárdica após a realização de uma maratona, assim como a influência dos polimorfismos da ECA e BNP. Para tanto, 74 maratonistas, que participariam da XIX Maratona Internacional de São Paulo 2013 foram submetidos aos seguintes procedimentos: anamnese, exame físico, avaliação física, ecocardiograma, eletrocardiograma, bem como um teste cardiopulmonar. 24 horas antes da maratona, foi realizada uma coleta de sangue, em jejum. No terceiro momento, imediatamente antes da maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a medida de peso e bioimpedância elétrica a fim de caracterizar a quantidade de água corporal. Imediatamente após a maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a medida de peso, bioimpedância elétrica, coleta de sangue e ecocardiograma. 24 e 72 horas após a maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a coleta de sangue. No sétimo e último momento, entre três e quinze dias apos a maratona, novamente um teste cardiopulmonar. Os principais resultados foram: a) Houveram alterações estatisticamente significativas em todos os marcadores de injúria miocárdica no período após a maratona, sem retorno aos valores basais 72 horas após a maratona, exceto para troponina; b) Não houve correlação linear entre os marcadores relacionados a isquemia e morte celular e o BNP. Porém, houve correlação cúbica entre o BNP e a troponina, além da correlação entre todos os marcadores de injúria relacionados a isquemia e morte, com efeito baixo deles na troponina, na análise de regressão linear; c) Houve influência da idade e experiência de treinamento na liberação de troponina e BNP, e da intensidade de realização da prova nos outros marcadores; d) Houve influência das características ecocardiográficas na liberação de troponina; e) O aumento das capacidades pulmonares na espirometria de repouso, assim como na ventilação do 2º limiar e pico no teste cardiopulmonar correlacionaram-se significativamente com a queda de hemoglobina ocorrida nos dias após a maratona; f) A redução dos níveis de hemoglobina e hematócrito nos maratonistas, 24 e 72 horas após a maratona, caracterizam a anemia do atleta; g) Não houve correlação entre os polimorfismos da ECA e do BNP e as características ecocardiográficas relacionadas ao coração de atleta, porém há correlação com a liberação de BNP após a maratona / The aims of this study was to verify the clinical implications and in the cardiopulmonary capacity resulting from acute cardiac morphofunctional changes and myocardial injury markers after a marathon, as well as the influence of ACE and BNP polymorphisms. Therefore, 74 marathon runners, which participate in the XIX International Marathon of São Paulo in 2013, underwent the following procedures: anamnesis, physical examination, fitness assessment, echocardiogram, electrocardiogram and a cardiopulmonary exercise testing. 24 hours before the marathon, a blood collect was held. Immediately before the marathon, athletes underwent measurement of weight and bioelectrical impedance to characterize the amount of body water. Immediately after the marathon, athletes underwent weight measurement, electrical impedance, blood collect and echocardiogram. 24 and 72 hours after the marathon athletes collected blood. In the seventh and final time between three and fifteen days after the marathon, a cardiopulmonary exercise test was performed. The main results were: a) There were statistically significant changes in all myocardial injury markers in the period after the marathon, which didn\'t return to basal values 72 hours after marathon, except to cardiac troponins; b) There was no linear correlation between the marker related to ischemia and cell death and the BNP. However, there cubic correlation between BNP and troponin, in addition to the correlation between all markers of injury related to cellular ischemia and death, with low effect on troponin in the linear regression analysis; c) Age and training experience affected the release of troponin and BNP, and intensity affected the others markers; d) There was influence of echocardiographic features in the release of troponin; e) The increase in lung capacity in spirometry as well as ventilation of the second threshold and peak in the cardiopulmonary test were significantly correlated with the decrease in haemoglobin occurred after marathon; f) The reduction of haemoglobin and haematocrit levels in marathon runners, 24 and 72 hours after marathon called athletes anaemia; g) There was no correlation between ACE and BNP polymorphisms and echocardiographic features related to the athlete\'s heart, but correlation with the release of BNP after marathon

Functional human organism changes during physical load is a sequence of complex interrelated processes. The optimum flow of these changes that enables one to adequately adapt oneself to the intensity and specific character of the load performed without causing harmful consequences for the athlete himself is the principal concern of sport medicine doctors and sport scientists and is of special importance in functional diagnostics too. A frequent phenomenon among athletes is overtraining (de–adaption) that can be caused by the absence of proper balance between training load and recovery, as well as by training sessions that are too frequent and too long and by additional tension due to a forthcoming contest or due to other causes. Therefore assessment of functional possibilities of the athlete’s body is important. We consider the human organism an adaptable, complex and dynamic system capable of organizing itself, though there is none, the only one, factor inside the system capable of doing this job. Making use of the automatic ECG analysis system “Kaunas – Load”, with parallel registration of ECG carrying out body motor characteristics (the working capacity developed), ABP or other processes characterizing haemodynamics enable one to reveal and evaluate the synergistic aspects of essential systems of the human organism what particularly extends the possibilities of functional diagnostics. The aim of the study was making use of the model of evaluation of the functional... [to full text]

O objetivo desse estudo foi verificar as repercussões clínicas e na capacidade cardiopulmonar, resultantes das alterações agudas morfofuncionais cardíacas e dos marcadores de injúria miocárdica após a realização de uma maratona, assim como a influência dos polimorfismos da ECA e BNP. Para tanto, 74 maratonistas, que participariam da XIX Maratona Internacional de São Paulo 2013 foram submetidos aos seguintes procedimentos: anamnese, exame físico, avaliação física, ecocardiograma, eletrocardiograma, bem como um teste cardiopulmonar. 24 horas antes da maratona, foi realizada uma coleta de sangue, em jejum. No terceiro momento, imediatamente antes da maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a medida de peso e bioimpedância elétrica a fim de caracterizar a quantidade de água corporal. Imediatamente após a maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a medida de peso, bioimpedância elétrica, coleta de sangue e ecocardiograma. 24 e 72 horas após a maratona, os atletas foram submetidos a coleta de sangue. No sétimo e último momento, entre três e quinze dias apos a maratona, novamente um teste cardiopulmonar. Os principais resultados foram: a) Houveram alterações estatisticamente significativas em todos os marcadores de injúria miocárdica no período após a maratona, sem retorno aos valores basais 72 horas após a maratona, exceto para troponina; b) Não houve correlação linear entre os marcadores relacionados a isquemia e morte celular e o BNP. Porém, houve correlação cúbica entre o BNP e a troponina, além da correlação entre todos os marcadores de injúria relacionados a isquemia e morte, com efeito baixo deles na troponina, na análise de regressão linear; c) Houve influência da idade e experiência de treinamento na liberação de troponina e BNP, e da intensidade de realização da prova nos outros marcadores; d) Houve influência das características ecocardiográficas na liberação de troponina; e) O aumento das capacidades pulmonares na espirometria de repouso, assim como na ventilação do 2º limiar e pico no teste cardiopulmonar correlacionaram-se significativamente com a queda de hemoglobina ocorrida nos dias após a maratona; f) A redução dos níveis de hemoglobina e hematócrito nos maratonistas, 24 e 72 horas após a maratona, caracterizam a anemia do atleta; g) Não houve correlação entre os polimorfismos da ECA e do BNP e as características ecocardiográficas relacionadas ao coração de atleta, porém há correlação com a liberação de BNP após a maratona / The aims of this study was to verify the clinical implications and in the cardiopulmonary capacity resulting from acute cardiac morphofunctional changes and myocardial injury markers after a marathon, as well as the influence of ACE and BNP polymorphisms. Therefore, 74 marathon runners, which participate in the XIX International Marathon of São Paulo in 2013, underwent the following procedures: anamnesis, physical examination, fitness assessment, echocardiogram, electrocardiogram and a cardiopulmonary exercise testing. 24 hours before the marathon, a blood collect was held. Immediately before the marathon, athletes underwent measurement of weight and bioelectrical impedance to characterize the amount of body water. Immediately after the marathon, athletes underwent weight measurement, electrical impedance, blood collect and echocardiogram. 24 and 72 hours after the marathon athletes collected blood. In the seventh and final time between three and fifteen days after the marathon, a cardiopulmonary exercise test was performed. The main results were: a) There were statistically significant changes in all myocardial injury markers in the period after the marathon, which didn\'t return to basal values 72 hours after marathon, except to cardiac troponins; b) There was no linear correlation between the marker related to ischemia and cell death and the BNP. However, there cubic correlation between BNP and troponin, in addition to the correlation between all markers of injury related to cellular ischemia and death, with low effect on troponin in the linear regression analysis; c) Age and training experience affected the release of troponin and BNP, and intensity affected the others markers; d) There was influence of echocardiographic features in the release of troponin; e) The increase in lung capacity in spirometry as well as ventilation of the second threshold and peak in the cardiopulmonary test were significantly correlated with the decrease in haemoglobin occurred after marathon; f) The reduction of haemoglobin and haematocrit levels in marathon runners, 24 and 72 hours after marathon called athletes anaemia; g) There was no correlation between ACE and BNP polymorphisms and echocardiographic features related to the athlete\'s heart, but correlation with the release of BNP after marathon