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The accurate modelling of the wind speed profile at altitudes relevant to wind energy (i.e. up to 200m) is important for preliminary wind resource assessments, forecasting of the wind resource, and estimating shear loads on turbine blades. Modelling of the wind profile at these altitudes is particularly challenging in stable stratification due to weak turbulence and the influence of a broad range of additional processes. Models used to simulate the wind profile range from equilibrium-based 1D analytic extrapolation models to time-evolving 3D atmospheric models. Extrapolation models are advantageous due to their low computational requirements but provide a very limited account of atmospheric physics. Conversely, 3D models are more physically comprehensive but have considerably higher computational cost and data requirements. The middle ground between these two approaches has been largely unexplored. The intent of this research is to compare the ability of a range of models of varying complexity to model the wind speed profile up to 200m under stable stratification. I focus in particular on models that are more physically robust than conventional extrapolation models but less computationally expensive than a 3D model. Observational data taken from the 213-m Cabauw meteorological tower in the Netherlands provide a basis for much of this analysis. I begin with a detailed demonstration of the limitations and breakdown in stable stratification of Monin-Obukhov similarity theory (MOST), the theoretical basis for the logarithmic wind speed profile model. I show that MOST (and its various modifications) are reasonably accurate up to 200m for stratification no stronger than weakly stable. At higher stratifications, the underlying assumptions of MOST break down and large errors in the modelled wind profiles are found. I then consider the performance of a two-layer MOST-Ekman layer model, which provides a more physically-comprehensive description of turbulence compared to MOST-based models and accounts for the Coriolis force and large-scale wind forcing (i.e. geostrophic wind). I demonstrate considerable improvements in wind profile accuracy up to 200m compared to MOST-based approaches. Next, I contrast the performance of a two-layer model with a more physically-comprehensive equilibrium-based single-column model (SCM) approach. I demonstrate several limitations of the equilibrium SCM approach - including frequent model breakdown - that limit its usefulness. I also demonstrate no clear association between the accuracy of the wind profile and the order of turbulence closure used in the SCM. Furthermore, baroclinic influences due to the land-sea temperature gradient are shown to have only modest influence on the SCM wind speed profile in stable conditions. Overall, the equilibrium SCM (when it does not break down) is found to generally outperform the two-layer model. Finally, I contrast the performance of the equilibrium SCM with a time-evolving SCM and a time-evolving 3D mesoscale model using a composite set of low-level jet (LLJ) case studies as well as a 10-year dataset at Cabauw. For the LLJ case studies, the time-evolving SCM and 3D model are found to accurately simulate the evolving stratification, the inertial oscillation, and the LLJ. The equilibrium SCM is shown to have comparatively less skill. Over the full 10-year data set, the sensitivity of the time-evolving SCM to horizontally-driven temperature changes in the ABL is found to be a considerable limitation. Despite its various limitations and simplified physics, the time-evolving SCM is generally found to be equally as accurate as the mesoscale model while using a fraction of the computational cost and requiring only a minimal amount of easily attainable local observations. Overall, the time-evolving SCM model is found to perform the best (considering both accuracy and robustness) compared to a range of equilibrium approaches as well as a time-evolving 3D model, while offering the best balance of observational data requirements, physical applicability, and computational requirements. This thesis presents a compelling case for the use of SCMs in the field of wind energy meteorology. / Graduate

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Wyoming, 2007. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on June 16, 2008). Includes bibliographical references (p. 75-80).

The stably stratified nocturnal boundary layer (SBL) can be classified into two distinct regimes: one with moderate to strong winds, weak stratification and mechanically sustained turbulence (wSBL) and the other one with moderate to weak wind conditions, strong stratification and collapsed turbulence (vSBL). With the help of a hidden Markov model (HMM) analysis of the three dimensional state variable space of stratification, mean wind speeds, and wind shear the SBL can be classified in these two regimes in both the Reynolds-averaged as well as turbulence state variables. The two-regime SBL is a generic structure at different tower sites around the world independent of the location specific conditions. Besides clustering the data the HMM analysis calculates the most likely regime occupation sequence which allows for detailed analysis of the structure of the meteorological state variables in conditions of very persistent nights. Conditioning on these very persistent nights clear influences of external drivers (such as pressure gradient force and low level cloud cover) are found. As the HMM analysis captures regime transitions accurately changes of state variables and external drivers across transitions can easily be assessed. Different meteorological state variables behave in times of turbulence collapse (wSBL to vSBL transition) and turbulence recovery (vSBL to wSBL transitions) as expected physically. The results reveal further that clear precursors for transitions in the state variable profiles or external drivers are cannot be determined and that on observed timescales regime transitions are relatively sharp. The absence of clear precursors suggests that parameterisations of SBL regime behaviour and turbulence in the two regimes in weather and climate models have to be stochastic. As regime statistics are relatively insensitive to changes in the stochastic properties of the HMM analysis observed regime statistics are compared to ’freely-running’ Markov chains. The SBL regime statistics do not follow a simple Markov process and more complex parameterisations are necessary. A possible approach of parameterising SBL regime behaviour stochastically using climatological results from this analysis is presented. / Graduate / 2019-12-17

Turbulent flows affected by buoyancy lie at the basis of many applications, both within engineering and the atmospheric sciences. A prominent example of such an application is the atmospheric boundary layer, the lowest layer of the atmosphere, in which many physical processes are heavily influenced by both stably stratified and convective turbulent transport. Modelling these turbulent flows correctly, especially in the presence of stable stratification, has proven to be a great challenge and forms an important problem in the context of climate models. In this thesis, we address this issue considering an advanced class of turbulence models, the so-called explicit algebraic models.In the presence of buoyancy forces, a mutual coupling between the Reynolds stresses and the turbulent heat flux exists, which makes it difficult to derive a fully explicit turbulence model. A method to overcome this problem is presented based on earlier studies for cases without buoyancy. Fully explicit and robust models are derived for turbulence in two-dimensional mean flows with buoyancy and shown to give good predictions compared with various data from direct numerical simulations (DNS), most notably in the case of stably stratified turbulent channel flow. Special attention is given to the problem of determining the production-to-dissipation ratio of turbulent kinetic energy, for which the exact equation cannot be solved analytically. A robust approximative method is presented to calculate this quantity, which is important for obtaining a consistent formulation of the model.The turbulence model derived in this way is applied to the atmospheric boundary layer in the form of two idealized test cases. First, we consider a purely stably stratified boundary layer in the context of the well-known GABLS1 study. The model is shown to give good predictions in this case compared to data from large-eddy simulation (LES). The second test case represents a full diurnal cycle containing both stable stratification and convective motions. In this case, the current model yields interesting dynamical features that cannot be captured by simpler models. These results are meant as a first step towards a more thorough investigation of the pros and cons of explicit algebraic models in the context of the atmospheric boundary layer, for which additional LES data are required. / <p>QC 20150522</p>

Neben der Abnahme des Schalldruckes bzw. der Schallintensität mit zunehmender Entfernung von einer Schallquelle (Kugelwellendivergenz) spielt bei der Schallausbreitung in der atmosphärischen Grenzschicht der Einfluss der höhenveränderlichen meteorologischen Größen, speziell der Temperatur und des Windvektors, auf die Geschwindigkeit und Richtung der Schallwellen eine entscheidende Rolle. Da in den bisherigen Richtlinien zur Erstellung von Lärmkatastern (über einen bestimmten Zeitraum gemittelte Schalldruckpegelverteilung in einem Gebiet) oder zur Messung der Schallimmission in der Umgebung von Schallquellen aktuelle meteorologische Informationen nicht einfließen, wird in dieser Studie untersucht, inwieweit ein entsprechend erweitertes Konzept bzw. Modell zu modifizierten Ergebnissen führt. Die Untersuchungen münden in ein Verfahren, das die Schallausbreitungsbedingungen an einem Ort für einen einzelnen Zeitpunkt bzw. während eines bestimmten Zeitraumes entsprechend der aktuellen thermischen Atmosphärenschichtung und den Vertikalprofilen von Windgeschwindigkeit und –richtung bestimmt. Die dafür benötigten Eingangsinformationen können durch Atmosphärenmodelle jederzeit und für beliebige Gitterpunkte bereitgestellt werden. / Except for the decrease of the acoustic pressure and the acoustic intensity with increasing distance between sound source and receiver (spherical divergence) the sound propagation and thereby the velocity and direction of sound waves inside the atmospheric boundary layer will be mainly influenced by the height-variable meteorological quantities, especially temperature and wind vector. Because actual meteorological information are ignored by the existing rules to create a noise register (averaged sound-pressure level distribution during a definite time interval and over a fixed region) or for the measurement of noise in the environment of sound sources, it will be investigated in this study whether an extended concept and model for the sound propagation will lead to modified results or not. The investigations lead to a technique which quantify the local conditions of sound propagation for one time or for a definite period corresponding to the vertical profiles of the air temperature as well as of wind speed and wind direction. The needed input data can be provided anytime and for any grid point by an atmospheric model.

To study especially the influence of a forest canopy on thermodynamic processes in the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) an one-dimensional model was developed for an ABL including forest as a vertically high resoluted canopy. In contrast to very expensive mesometeorological and LES (Large-Eddy Simulation)-models it is the aim of our study to construct practical simple applicable ABL-model-versions for a rather detailed non steady-state simulation of energy fluxes as well as of windvector, temperature-, humidity- and turbulence-parameter- profiles within and above a forest canopy. The obtained results show clearly that characteristic features of the meteorological fields as temperature are in a general agreement with observations (BEMA). Numerical experiments also describe the considerable influence of the closure approach used and the values for vegetation parameters on the simulation results. / Um den Einfluß eines Waldbestandes auf die thermodynamischen Prozesse in der Atmosphärischen Grenzschicht (AGS) zu untersuchen, wurde ein eindimensionales Modell für eine AGS mit einem Waldbestand als vertikal hoch aufgelöster Vegetationsschicht entwickelt. Im Gegensatz zu den sehr aufwendigen mesoskaligen und LES (Large-Eddy Simulation)-Modellen ist es Ziel dieser Untersuchung, praktisch leicht anwendbare Modellversionen der AGS für die detaillierte instationäre Simulation von Energieflüssen sowie des Windvektors, von Temperatur-, Feuchte- und Turbulenzparameterprofilen inner- und oberhalb des Waldbestandes zu konstruieren. Die erhaltenen Resultate zeigen deutlich, daß die charakteristischen Eigenschaften der meteorologischen Felder, z.B. Temperatur, in genereller Übereinstimmung mit Messungen (BEMA) sind. Die numerischen Experimente geben außerdem den bedeutenden Einfluß der verwendeten Schließungsannahme und der Werte für die Vegetationsparameter auf die Ergebnisse der Simulationen wieder.

An instrumented unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was developed and employed to observe the full range of turbulent motions that exist within the inertial subrange of atmospheric surface layer turbulence. The UAV was host to a suite of pressure, temperature, humidity, and wind sensors which provide the necessary data to calculate the variety of turbulent statistics that characterize the flow. Flight experiments were performed with this aircraft, consisting of a large square pattern at an altitude of 100 m above ground level. In order to capture the largest turbulent scales it was necessary to maximize the size of the square pattern. The smallest turbulent scales, on the other hand, were measured through the use of a fast response constant temperature hot wire anemometer. The results demonstrates that the UAV system is capable of directly measuring the full inertial subrange of the atmospheric surface layer with high resolution and allowing for the turbulence dissipation rate to be calculated directly.

<p>In this study the flux attenuation due to sensor displacement has been investigated over sea using an extensive set of data from the "Ocean Horizontal Array Turbulence Study". All previous investigations of the flux attenuation have been performed over land.</p><p>A function developed for correcting fluxes in the homogenous surface layer was compared to measured flux attenuation. This investigation revealed the possibility to find new functions describing the flux attenuation when measurements are carried out over sea. From the measured flux attenuation studied here a change in the form of correction functions was required to improve the estimated flux loss. The most significant difference found in this report compared to the previous landbased study Horst (2006) is for stable conditions, where significantly less flux loss is found over sea. Two new functions describing the attenuation due to sensor displacement over sea have been constructed.</p><p>One of these expressions has a discontinuity at z/L = 0. This is supported by measured flux attenuation. A reasonable interpretation is; however, that this discontinuity is caused by two separate turbulence regimes near neutrality on the stable and unstable side respectively. The discontinuity is thus not believed to be an effect merely of stability. A second correction function which is continuous over all stabilities has therefore also been constructed. These two functions and the correction function from Horst (2006) have been compared to measured flux loss. Based on this comparison the continuous correction function is recommended for correcting scalar fluxes measured over sea. It should be noted, however, that this expression only describes the mean attenuation and has been constructed from measurements at 5 and 5.5 m above mean sea level.</p><p>The theoretical basis used in the development of the function for flux attenuation over land allows for a direct link between a spectral shape and the attenuation expression. This link has been preserved for the new expressions presented in this report. The spectral shape corresponding to the continuous correction function has been compared to measured mean cospectra and also to the cospectra from Horst (2006) corresponding to crosswind displacements.</p><p>At a height of 10 m and a sensor displacement of 0.2 m the mean flux attenuation is about 1.3-4% in the stability interval −1 < z/L < 1.5 when using the new correction functions presented in this report.</p>