Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) characteristics can be highly complex; the links between spatial and temporal variability of ABL meteorological quantities and existing land use patterns are still poorly understood due to the non-linearity of air-land interaction processes. This study describes the results from Monin Obukhov similarity theory and statistical analysis of meteorological observations collected by a network of ten Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs). The stations were in operation in the Highveld Priority Area (HPA) of the Republic of South Africa during 2008 – 2010. The spatial distribution of stability regimes as presented by both bulk Richardson number (BRN) and Obukhov length (L) indicates that HPA is dominated by strong stability regime. The momentum and heat fluxes show no significant spatial variation between stations. Statistical analysis revealed localization, enhancement and homogenization in the inter-station variability of observed meteorological quantities (temperature, relative humidity and wind speed) over diurnal and seasonal cycles. Enhancement of the meteorological spatial variability was found on a broad range of scales from 20 to 50 km during morning hours and in the dry winter season. These spatial scales are comparable to scales of observed land use heterogeneity, which suggests links between atmospheric variability and land use patterns through excitation of horizontal meso-scale circulations. Convective motions homogenized and synchronized meteorological variability during afternoon hours in the winter seasons, and during large parts of the day during the moist summer season. The analysis also revealed that turbulent convection overwhelms horizontal meso-scale circulations in the study area during extensive parts of the annual cycle / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / Unrestricted

Ce travail de recherche concerne l’interaction entre une couche limite atmosphérique et une canopée (représentant un couvert forestier). J’ai étudié le problème complexe de production et d’évolution de grosses structures turbulentes au dessus de couverts homogènes et hétérogènes, moyennement denses. J’ai abordé ce problème en mettant en œuvre les outils de la simulation numérique des grosses structures (LES) et du calcul haute performance (HPC). Les résultats numériques obtenus, reproduisent correctement les principales caractéristiques de cet écoulement, telles qu’elles sont rapportées dans la littérature : la formation d’une première génération de structures cohérentes en rouleaux, orientées transversalement par rapport à la direction de l’écoulement principal, puis la réorganisation et la déformation de ces structures qui évoluent vers une forme en fer à cheval. Les résultats obtenus au dessus d’un couvert discontinu (représentant une clairière ou une coupure de combustible dans une forêt), ont été comparés avec des données expérimentales collectées dans une soufflerie. Ceux-ci confirment l’existence d’un niveau élevé de turbulence au sein même du couvert végétal à une distance égale à 8 fois la hauteur de canopée. Cette zone, (appelée « Enhance Gust Zone » dans la littérature), est par ailleurs caractérisée par l’existence d’un pic local du facteur de dissymétrie (« skewness factor »).Le transport d’un contaminant passif émis par le feuillage a été également étudié, dans deux configurations, en supposant que la concentration à la surface du feuillage pouvait être considérée comme constante (source infinie) ou variable (source finie) en fonction du temps. Les résultats montrent un impact significatif de cette hypothèse sur la dynamique et le niveau des concentrations relevées dans l’atmosphère. / The work is dedicated to the investigation of the interaction between an Atmospheric Boundary Layer and a canopy (representing a forest cover). We have focused our attention to the complex problem of the generation and transformation of turbulent vortices over homogeneous, heterogeneous and sparse canopy. This problem has been studied using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach and High Performance Computing (HPC) technique.The numerical results reproduced correctly all the main characteristics of this flow, as reported in the literature: the formation of a first generation of coherent structures aligned transversally with the wind flow direction, the reorganization and the deformation of these vortex tubes into horse-shoe structures. The results obtained with the introduction of a discontinuity in the canopy (reproducing a clearing or a fuel break in a forest) are compared with the experimental data collected in a wind tunnel. In this case, the results confirmed the existence of a strong turbulence activity inside the canopy at a distance equal to 8 times the height of the canopy, referenced in the literature as the Enhance Gust Zone (EGZ) characterized by a local peak of the skewness factor. Then, the process of passive scalar transport from a forest canopy into a clear atmosphere is studied for two cases, i.e., when the concentration held by the forest canopy is either constant or variable. While this difference has little influence on the concentration patterns, results show that it has an important influence on the concentration magnitude as well as on the dynamics of the total concentration in the atmosphere.

Turbulent collapse and recovery are both observed to occur abruptly in the atmospheric stable boundary layer (SBL). The understanding and predictability of turbulent recovery remains limited, reducing numerical weather prediction accuracy. Previous studies have shown that regime occupation is the result of the net effect of highly variable processes, from turbulent to synoptic scales, making stochastic methods a compelling approach. Idealized stable boundary layer models have shown that under some circumstances, regimes can be related to the stable branches of model equilibria, and an additional unstable equilibrium is predicted. This work seeks to determine the extent to which the SBL regime occupation can be explained using a one-dimensional stochastic differential equation (SDE). The drift and diffusion coefficients of the SDE of an input time series are approximated from the statistics of its averaged time tendencies. These approximated coefficients are fit using Gaussian Process Regression. Probabilistic estimates of the system's equilibrium points are then found and used to create an empirical bifurcation diagram without making any prior assumptions on the dynamical form of the system. This data driven bifurcation diagram is compared to modelled predictions. The analysis is repeated on several meteorological towers around the world to assess the influence of local meteorological settings. This work provides empirical insights into the nature of regime dynamics and the extent to which the SBL displays hysteresis. / Graduate

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(理学) / 乙第12913号 / 論理博第1549号 / 新制||理||1591(附属図書館) / 32123 / 名古屋大学大学院理学研究科 / (主査)准教授 林 泰一, 教授 石川 裕彦, 教授 余田 成男 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

The following work represents the research attempt of Dr. Frasier's group to develop a FMCW wind profiler for atmospheric boundary layer studies. The hardware development and integration are described in detail.

This thesis studies the implementation of an Explicit Algebraic Reynolds-Stress Model(EARSM) for Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) in an open source ComputationalFluid Dynamics (CFD) software, OpenFOAM, following the guidance provided by thewind company ENERCON that aims to make use of this novel model to improvesites’ wind-field predictions. After carefully implementing the model in OpenFOAM,the EARSM implementation is verified and validated by testing it with a stratifiedCouette flow case. The former was done by feeding mean flow properties, takenfrom OpenFOAM, in a python tool containing the full EARSM system of equationsand constants, and comparing the resulting flux profiles with the ones extracted bythe OpenFOAM simulations. Subsequently, the latter was done by comparing theprofiles of the two universal functions used by Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory(MOST) for mean velocity and temperature to the results obtained by Želi et al. intheir study of the EARSM applied to a single column ABL, in “Modelling of stably-stratified, convective and transitional atmospheric boundary layers using the explicitalgebraic Reynolds-stress model” (2021). The verification of the model showed minordifferences between the flux profiles from the python tool and OpenFOAM thus, themodel’s implementation was deemed verified, while the validation step showed nodifference in the unstable and neutral stratification cases, but a significant discrepancyfor stably stratified flow. Nonetheless, the reason behind the inconsistency is believedto be related to the choice of boundary conditions thus, the model’s implementationitself is considered validated. Finally, the comparison between the EARSM and the k − ε model showed thatthe former is able to capture the physics of the flow properties where the latter failsto. In particular, the diagonal momentum fluxes resulting from the EARSM reflectthe observed behaviour of being different from each other, becoming isotropic withaltitude in the case of unstable stratification, and having magnitude u′u′ > v′v′ > w′w′ for stably stratified flows. On the other hand, the eddy viscosity assumption used bythe k − ε model computes the diagonal momentum fluxes as being equal to each other.Moreover, the EARSM captures more than one non-zero heat flux component in theCouette flow case, which has been observed to be the case in literature, while the eddydiffusivity assumption used by the k − ε model only accounts for one non-zero heat fluxcomponent.

La modélisation par simulation des grandes échelles (Large-Eddy Simulation - LES) des processus physiques régissant la couche limite atmosphérique (CLA) demeure complexe de part la difficulté des modèles à capter l'évolution de la turbulence entre différentes conditions de stratification. De ce fait, l'étude LES du cycle diurne complet de la CLA comprenant des situations convectives la journée et des conditions stables la nuit est très peu documenté. La simulation de la couche limite stable où la turbulence est faible, intermittente et qui est caractérisée par des structures turbulentes de petite taille est tout particulièrement compliquée. En conséquence, la capacité de la LES à bien reproduire les conditions météorologiques de la CLA, notamment en situation stable, est étudiée à l'aide du code de mécanique des fluides développé par EDF R&D, Code_Saturne. Dans une première étude, le modèle LES est validé sur un cas de couche limite convective quasi stationnaire sur terrain homogène. L'influence des modèles sous-maille de Smagorinsky, Germano-Lilly, Wong-Lilly et WALE (Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity) ainsi que la sensibilité aux méthodes de paramétrisation sur les champs moyens, les flux et les variances est discutées. Dans une seconde étude le cycle diurne complet de la CLA pendant la campagne de mesure Wangara est modélisé. L'écart aux mesures étant faible le jour, ce travail se concentre sur les difficultés rencontrées la nuit à bien modéliser la couche limite stable. L'impact de différents modèles sous-maille ainsi que la sensibilité au coefficient de Smagorinsky ont été analysés. Par l'intermédiaire d'un couplage radiatif réalisé en LES, les répercussions du rayonnement infrarouge et solaire sur le jet de basse couche nocturne et le gradient thermique près de la surface sont exposées. De plus l'adaptation de la résolution du domaine à l'intensité de la turbulence et la forte stabilité atmosphérique durant l'expérience Wangara sont commentées. Enfin un examen des oscillations numériques inhérentes à Code_Saturne est réalisé afin d'en limiter les effets / Large-eddy simulation (LES) of the physical processes in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) remains a complex subject. LES models have difficulties to capture the evolution of the turbulence in different conditions of stratification. Consequently, LES of the whole diurnal cycle of the ABL including convetive situations in daytime and stable situations in the night time is seldom documented. The simulation of the stable atmospheric boundary layer which is characterized by small eddies and by weak and sporadic turbulence is espacialy difficult. Therefore The LES ability to well reproduce real meteorological conditions, particularly in stable situations, is studied with the CFD code developed by EDF R&D, Code_Saturne. The first study consist in validate LES on a quasi-steady state convective case with homogeneous terrain. The influence of the subgrid-scale models (Smagorinsky model, Germano-Lilly model, Wong-Lilly model and Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity model) and the sensitivity to the parametrization method on the mean fields, flux and variances are discussed.In a second study, the diurnal cycle of the ABL during Wangara experiment is simulated. The deviation from the measurement is weak during the day, so this work is focused on the difficulties met during the night to simulate the stable atmospheric boundary layer. The impact of the different subgrid-scale models and the sensitivity to the Smagorinsky constant are been analysed. By coupling radiative forcing with LES, the consequences of infra-red and solar radiation on the nocturnal low level jet and on thermal gradient, close to the surface, are exposed. More, enhancement of the domain resolution to the turbulence intensity and the strong atmospheric stability during the Wangara experiment are analysed. Finally, a study of the numerical oscillations inherent to Code_Saturne is realized in order to decrease their effects

Title: Flow and diffusion characteristics inside the urban area Author: Hana Chaloupecká Department: Department of meteorology and enviroment protection Supervisor: prof. RNDr. Zbyněk Jaňour, DrSc., IT AS CR, v. v. i. Supervisor's e - mail: janour@it.cas.cz Abstract: Uniqueness of different towns, consists of various shapes of buildings. The main topic of this work is to compare concentration diffusion within groups of buildings of various types. We pursued houses made of single blocks of two different lengths - they were placed parallel or in courtyards. For research of pollution diffusion within the housing estates a method of physical modelling has been used. For this purpose we summarized a theory of atmospheric boundary layer and physical modelling at first. Then we pursued experiments. Measuring took place in a model in scale 1 : 300 inside an aerodynamic wind tunnel of the Institute of Thermomechanics AS in Nový Knín. We checked out the requirements placed on similarity of the real boundary layer and boundary layer modelled in the tunnel. By the measuring of concentration in urban areas we weren't watching a plume from the pollution source but we were studying an inversion task. We measured concentrations in two fixed points from different point sources inside the defined areas. A sensitivity of...

Simulações numéricas do escoamento atmosférico em microescala constituem o foco principal deste estudo. Estas simulações são abordadas tendo em vista aplicações para o setor eólico, em especial para avaliações de produção de energia em parques eólicos. Existem diversas categorias de incertezas associadas às estimativas de produção de energia para um projeto eólico, mas na maioria dos casos, a incerteza associada ao modelo de escoamento é a maior e mais relevante de todas. Dentro do setor eólico, o termo “modelo de escoamento” refere-se à ferramenta numérica utilizada para extrapolar o recurso eólico medido na posição das torres anemométricas (e sensores remotos) até as posições projetadas para os aerogeradores. Diversos autores sugerem através de estudos comparativos que os modelos tipo “CFD RANS k-ε” atualmente representam o “estado da arte” para aplicações em parques eólicos e são os mais utilizados comercialmente no setor. Contudo, o escoamento atmosférico livre é intrinsicamente turbulento, e a dinâmica dos escoamentos turbulentos é um campo científico que ainda não foi totalmente dominado pelo conhecimento humano. O presente estudo demonstra que a maioria dos “modelos de escoamento” atualmente disponíveis possuem pontos fracos, em especial quando aplicados em simulações do escoamento atmosférico livre sobre áreas com topografia e rugosidade complexas Uma das fraquezas presentes na maioria dos modelos de microescala para escoamento atmosférico é a “incapacidade” de simular com precisão o escoamento que ocorre durante períodos de “estabilidade atmosférica”. Diversos locais com elevado potencial eólico apresentam ciclos durante os quais as características do escoamento são afetadas pela ocorrência de estratificação térmica dentro da Camada Limite Atmosférica. Tendo como objetivo principal melhorar as simulações do escoamento nestas condições, propõe-se através deste estudo algumas modificações na modelagem “CFD RANS k-ε” tradicionalmente empregada. Dentre estas, destacam-se a inclusão de um perfil estratificado de temperatura potencial como condição de contorno, a inclusão dos efeitos das forças de empuxo no equacionamento “k-ε” e a solução simultânea das equações para balanço de energia e para o fluxo de temperatura potencial. Este modelo foi chamado de “RANS estável”. Para validação deste modelo foram utilizadas cinco torres anemométricas instaladas em um local com topografia complexa. Estas torres foram montadas e instrumentadas conforme as melhores práticas internacionais Os dados anemométricos registrados por essas torres demonstram a presença de ciclos diários de estabilidade atmosférica. Os erros de previsão cruzada foram calculados comparando-se as previsões de cada modelo com as medições reais registradas na posição das torres. O erro global médio de previsão cruzada entre torres anemométricas obtido com a composição dos modelos RANS “estável + neutro” foi de 3,8% enquanto o erro obtido apenas com o modelo RANS k-ε tradicional foi de 5,2%. Para o modelo linear WAsP, amplamente utilizado no setor eólico, o erro foi de 7,1%. Além dos erros de previsão cruzada entre torres, os perfis verticais de velocidade e os fatores de aceleração direcionais obtidos com a composição dos modelos RANS “estável + neutro” também sugerem que esta é uma alternativa versátil e promissora para capturar os ciclos de estabilidade atmosférica utilizando simulações numéricas em regime permanente. / Microscale numerical simulations of the atmospheric wind flow are the central focus of this study. These simulations are analysed from the wind energy perspective. Special attention is given to the usage and application of these simulations in energy production assessments for proposed wind farms. There are multiple uncertainty categories associated with energy production forecasts for future wind farms. However, in most cases the uncertainty factors related with wind flow modelling are the largest and most relevant of them all. The wording “flow model” refers to the numerical simulations (or “models”) that are used to extrapolate the anemometric data recorded at meteorological masts positions to the proposed wind turbine positions. Several authors have demonstrated through comparative studies that the “CFD RANS k-ε” models currently represent the “state of the art” when it comes to microscale wind flow simulations targeted at wind farms. Nonetheless, the atmospheric wind flow is turbulent by nature, and the dynamics of turbulent flows represent one of the scientific fields that have not yet been fully dominated by the human knowledge. The present study demonstrates that the majority of flow models currently available to mankind still lack in precision, even more so when it comes to modelling free atmospheric wind flow over complex terrain. One of the major weak spots of most microscale wind flow models is their inability to precisely simulate the wind flow that occurs during periods of atmospheric stability Numerous locations with large potential for wind energy production present cyclic periods of thermal stratification inside the atmospheric boundary layer. These cycles alter the dynamics and characteristics of the wind stream. With the purpose of improving wind flow simulations under stable atmospheric conditions, some modifications to the standard “RANS k-ε” model implementation are proposed. The most significant of these modifications are the usage of a potential temperature profile among the boundary conditions, the inclusion of the buoyancy forces in the “k-ε” equations and the simultaneous solution of the equations for energy balance and for potential temperature transport. This “modified” model was named “stable RANS”. It was validated using five well mounted meteorological masts installed in a location with complex topography. The anemometric data measured by these site masts suggest the existence of strong daily cycles of atmospheric stability. Cross prediction errors were calculated by comparing the forecasts (outputs) from each flow model against real wind data measured at each mast position The global average cross prediction error yielded by the RANS “stable +neutral” model was around 3,8%, whereas the error yielded by the traditional “RANS k-ε” implementation was near 5,2%. For the linear model WAsP the error was calculated to be 7,1%. In addition to cross prediction errors, the vertical wind speed profiles and speed-up factors calculated with the RANS “stable +neutral” model composition also suggest that it is a promising and versatile alternative for capturing the effects from atmospheric stability on wind flow using steady state numerical simulations.

This thesis deals with the estimation of plant-atmosphere trace gas exchange and isotopic discrimination from atmospheric concentration measurements. Two space scales were investigated: canopy and regional. The canopy-scale study combined a Lagrangian model of turbulent dispersal with ecophysiological principles to infer vertical profiles of fluxes of CO2, H2O and heat as well as carbon and oxygen isotope discrimination during CO2 assimilation, from concentration measurements within a forest. The regional-scale model used a convective boundary layer budget approach to infer average regional isotopic discrimination and fluxes of CO2 and sensible and latent heat from the evolution during the day of boundary layer height and mean concentrations of CO2 and H2O, temperature and carbon and oxygen isotope composition of CO2. For the canopy study, concentrations of five scalar quantities, CO2, 13CO2, C18O16O, H2O and temperature, were measured at up to nine heights within and above a mixed fir and spruce forest in central Siberia over several days just after snow melt in May 2000. Eddy covariance measurements of CO2, H2O and heat fluxes were made above the canopy over the same period, providing independent verification of the model flux estimates. Photosynthesis, transpiration, heat exchange and isotope discrimination during CO2 assimilation were modelled for sun and shade leaves throughout the canopy through a combination of inversion of the concentration data and principles of biochemistry, plant physiology and energy balance. In contrast to the more usual inverse modelling concept where fluxes are inferred directly from concentrations, in this study the inversion was used to predict unknown parameters within a process-based model of leaf gas and energy exchange. Parameters relating to photosynthetic capacity, stomatal conductance, radiation penetration and turbulence structure were optimised by the inversion to provide the best fit of modelled to measured concentration profiles of the five scalars. Model results showed that carbon isotope discrimination, stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration were depressed due to the low temperatures experienced during snow melt, oxygen isotope discrimination was positive and consistent with other estimates, radiation penetrated further than simple theoretical predictions because of leaf clumping and penumbra, the turbulence coherence was lower than expected and stability effects were important in the morning and evening. For the regional study, five flights were undertaken over two days in and above the convective boundary layer above a heterogeneous pine forest and bog region in central Siberia. Vertical profiles of CO2 and H2O concentrations, temperature and pressure were obtained during each flight. Air flask samples were taken at various heights for carbon and oxygen isotopic analysis of CO2. Two budget methods were used to estimate regional surface fluxes of CO2 and plant isotopic discrimination against 13CO2 and C18O16O, with the first method also used to infer regional sensible and latent heat fluxes. Flux estimates were compared to ground-based eddy covariance measurements. Model results showed that afternoon estimates for carbon and oxygen isotope discrimination were close to those expected from source water isotopic measurements and theory of isotope discrimination. Estimates for oxygen isotope discrimination for the morning period were considerably different and could be explained by contrasting influences of the two different ecosystem types and non-steady state evaporative enrichment of leaf water.