A evolução do uso da energia eólica nas últimas décadas está diretamente relacionada ao de-senvolvimento da tecnologia empregada na conversão e projeto das instalações. Neste contex-to o presente trabalho apresenta um estudo sobre a influência de fatores atmosféricos, tais como a turbulência e a presença de um perfil de velocidades referentes à camada limite at-mosférica, no desenvolvimento da esteira aerodinâmica de uma turbina eólica dimensionada segundo a teoria de Betz. O estudo é realizado utilizando o método dos volumes finitos para a solução das equações de Navier-Stokes com Médias de Reynolds (RANS). O problema de fechamento é contornado com a modelagem da turbulência segundo o modelo SST. A análise é realizada empregando o programa ANSYS-CFX 12.0 com modelagem do escoamento em regime transiente e incompressível. O domínio, discretizado com volumes tetraédricos e pris-máticos, é dividido em uma região em que está inserido o rotor da turbina e outra equivalente ao túnel de vento utilizado no trabalho experimental de referência, com condição de interface conectando os volumes. A análise é focada no estudo da esteira distante do rotor com resulta-dos comparados aos experimentais existentes na literatura. O estudo é dividido em três casos com intensidades de turbulência na entrada do domínio equivalentes a 0,6%, 2% e 6 % res-pectivamente, utilizadas tanto nas simulações com perfil uniforme de velocidades quanto para aquela com perfil logarítmico de velocidades. Os resultados, apresentados de forma adimensi-onal para a velocidade em diferentes distâncias a jusante do rotor, são coerentes com resulta-dos experimentais de outros autores. As simulações realizadas demonstram a importância de considerarem-se os efeitos atmosféricos no dimensionamento de projetos de instalação de sistemas de conversão de energia eólica. / Advances in the study of numerical simulations of turbulent flows, coupled with the increase of computational power, has enabled computational solutions for more complex engineering problems. The evolution in the use of wind energy in recent decades is directly related to the development of technology involving the conversion and project of installations. In this con-text, this work shows a study on the influence of atmospheric factors like turbulence and the existence of a velocity profile related to the atmospheric boundary layer, in the development of the aerodynamic wake of a wind turbine projected following the Betz theory. The study is done using the method of finite volumes to solve the Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equa-tions (RANS), the closure problem is outlined with the SST model. The analysis is done using ANSYS-CFX 12.0 software with modeling of transient and incompressible flow. The domain, discretized with tetrahedral and prismatic volumes, is divided into a region where the tur-bine’s rotor is placed and into another one equivalent to the wind tunnel used in experimental research, with an interface condition connecting both domains. The focus of the analysis is the study of the rotor’s downstream wake, comparing the results to experimental ones from exist-ing literature. The study is divided into three cases with different turbulence intensities in the domain inlet equivalent to 0.6%, 2% and 6% respectively, used both in the uniform velocity profile and in the logarithmic velocity profile simulations. Results, presented in non-dimensional form for the velocity at different downstream distances from the rotor, are con-sistent with the experimental results of other authors. Developed simulations show the impor-tance of considering atmospheric effects on sizing projects of wind energy conversion sys-tems.

O estudo experimental dos processos de dispersão atmosférica de poluentes permite a análise de problemas específicos e a avaliação dos modelos teórico-numéricos. Os custos da experimentação de campo conduzem à realização de estudos de laboratório em modelos reduzidos. Este trabalho tem por objetivo principal a reprodução dos ventos atmosféricos e dos processos de dispersão em escala reduzida em túnel de vento. Foram estabelecidos os requerimentos gerais de modelagem para os diversos problemas relacionados com o estudo experimental da dispersão de poluentes atmosféricos, incluindo a simulação da camada limite atmosférica e da fonte de emissão. A partir desta análise, foram desenvolvidos e avaliados diversos modelos experimentais dos ventos turbulentos na camada limite atmosférica neutral utilizando velocidades médias muito baixas que permitam cumprir os requerimentos de semelhança do processo de dispersão. As simulações incluem ventos turbulentos sobre terrenos homogêneos a diferentes escalas. Na avaliação experimental foram utilizados dados da literatura e comparações diretas com resultados de campo para a condição de atmosfera em estabilidade neutra. Foram estudados escoamentos turbulentos mais complexos nas proximidades de um modelo simples de uma edificação e em um entorno urbano não homogêneo. Para os estudos da difusão atmosférica, foi estabelecida a prioridade da modelagem de problemas locais de dispersão. Foi modelada uma fonte de emissão pontual de baixa altura representativa de uma chaminé que permita a modificação das condições de empuxo da pluma. A análise do processo de dispersão e das concentrações foi realizada considerando diversas configurações que incluem a fonte de emissão isolada num escoamento homogêneo, a consideração dos efeitos da esteira próxima ao modelo de uma edificação, e finalmente de um terreno urbano não homogêneo. Foram determinadas as concentrações médias e as flutuações de concentração na pluma. Estes resultados permitiram obter os campos de concentração e, a partir das funções de densidade de probabilidade e funções de densidade espectral, analisar as zonas de intermitência no campo de concentração. Comparações com resultados da literatura e com modelos teóricos complementam o estudo realizado. É dada ênfase na análise das flutuações de concentração e na intermitência dos processos de dispersão, dada a importância do seu conhecimento para o desenvolvimento de modelos bem como à escassa informação experimental na bibliografia. Os resultados deste trabalho permitem estabelecer a viabilidade da simulação da camada atmosférica neutral e dos estudos de dispersão em túnel de vento, determinando vantagens e limitações dos modelos reduzidos. A influência das características do escoamento turbulento, das configurações próximas do terreno e das características da emissão no processo de dispersão foi estudada. Finalmente, são analisadas as condições de intermitência associadas aos escoamentos turbulentos e, em particular, aos campos de concentração próximos a uma fonte de emissão. / The experimental study of the pollutant dispersion processes allows the analysis of specific problems as well as the evaluation of theoretical models. The costs related to full scale measurements make the experimental studies over reduced scaled models a better research tool. This work has the aim of modeling some kinds of atmospheric winds and related dispersion processes in wind tunnels. The general modeling laws related to the experimental study of pollutants dispersion were followed, including the boundary layer simulation and the emission source. Several experimental models of the turbulent winds in neutral boundary layers were developed and evaluated by using very low wind velocities, allowing the fulfillment of the similitude laws of the dispersion process. The simulations include turbulent winds over homogeneous terrains at different scales. Literature data were used in the experimental evaluation as well as direct comparisons with field results for the atmosphere under neutral stability conditions. Also, more complex turbulent flows were studied in the close proximities of a simple building model in a non homogeneous surrounding. For the atmospheric diffusion studies, it was decided to model local dispersion situations. A single, punctual type of emission source was modeled, representing the conditions at a low height chimney and allowing the modification of the plume buoyancy conditions. The analysis of the dispersion process and concentrations was performed under several configurations including the isolated source emission in a homogeneous flow, the consideration of the wake effects close to a building model, and finally of a non homogeneous urban terrain. The mean and fluctuating components of the plume concentration were obtained. These results allowed the characterization of the concentration fields. From the probability and spectral density functions it was possible to analyze the intermittence of the concentration field. Comparisons with literature results and with theoretical models complement the study. Special care is taken in the analysis of the fluctuations of the concentration and in the intermittence of the dispersion processes, due to its importance to the development of theoretical models as well as the lack of experimental information in the open literature.

Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) characteristics can be highly complex; the links between spatial and temporal variability of ABL meteorological quantities and existing land use patterns are still poorly understood due to the non-linearity of air-land interaction processes. This study describes the results from Monin Obukhov similarity theory and statistical analysis of meteorological observations collected by a network of ten Automatic Weather Stations (AWSs). The stations were in operation in the Highveld Priority Area (HPA) of the Republic of South Africa during 2008 – 2010. The spatial distribution of stability regimes as presented by both bulk Richardson number (BRN) and Obukhov length (L) indicates that HPA is dominated by strong stability regime. The momentum and heat fluxes show no significant spatial variation between stations. Statistical analysis revealed localization, enhancement and homogenization in the inter-station variability of observed meteorological quantities (temperature, relative humidity and wind speed) over diurnal and seasonal cycles. Enhancement of the meteorological spatial variability was found on a broad range of scales from 20 to 50 km during morning hours and in the dry winter season. These spatial scales are comparable to scales of observed land use heterogeneity, which suggests links between atmospheric variability and land use patterns through excitation of horizontal meso-scale circulations. Convective motions homogenized and synchronized meteorological variability during afternoon hours in the winter seasons, and during large parts of the day during the moist summer season. The analysis also revealed that turbulent convection overwhelms horizontal meso-scale circulations in the study area during extensive parts of the annual cycle / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / Unrestricted

Ce travail de recherche concerne l’interaction entre une couche limite atmosphérique et une canopée (représentant un couvert forestier). J’ai étudié le problème complexe de production et d’évolution de grosses structures turbulentes au dessus de couverts homogènes et hétérogènes, moyennement denses. J’ai abordé ce problème en mettant en œuvre les outils de la simulation numérique des grosses structures (LES) et du calcul haute performance (HPC). Les résultats numériques obtenus, reproduisent correctement les principales caractéristiques de cet écoulement, telles qu’elles sont rapportées dans la littérature : la formation d’une première génération de structures cohérentes en rouleaux, orientées transversalement par rapport à la direction de l’écoulement principal, puis la réorganisation et la déformation de ces structures qui évoluent vers une forme en fer à cheval. Les résultats obtenus au dessus d’un couvert discontinu (représentant une clairière ou une coupure de combustible dans une forêt), ont été comparés avec des données expérimentales collectées dans une soufflerie. Ceux-ci confirment l’existence d’un niveau élevé de turbulence au sein même du couvert végétal à une distance égale à 8 fois la hauteur de canopée. Cette zone, (appelée « Enhance Gust Zone » dans la littérature), est par ailleurs caractérisée par l’existence d’un pic local du facteur de dissymétrie (« skewness factor »).Le transport d’un contaminant passif émis par le feuillage a été également étudié, dans deux configurations, en supposant que la concentration à la surface du feuillage pouvait être considérée comme constante (source infinie) ou variable (source finie) en fonction du temps. Les résultats montrent un impact significatif de cette hypothèse sur la dynamique et le niveau des concentrations relevées dans l’atmosphère. / The work is dedicated to the investigation of the interaction between an Atmospheric Boundary Layer and a canopy (representing a forest cover). We have focused our attention to the complex problem of the generation and transformation of turbulent vortices over homogeneous, heterogeneous and sparse canopy. This problem has been studied using Large Eddy Simulation (LES) approach and High Performance Computing (HPC) technique.The numerical results reproduced correctly all the main characteristics of this flow, as reported in the literature: the formation of a first generation of coherent structures aligned transversally with the wind flow direction, the reorganization and the deformation of these vortex tubes into horse-shoe structures. The results obtained with the introduction of a discontinuity in the canopy (reproducing a clearing or a fuel break in a forest) are compared with the experimental data collected in a wind tunnel. In this case, the results confirmed the existence of a strong turbulence activity inside the canopy at a distance equal to 8 times the height of the canopy, referenced in the literature as the Enhance Gust Zone (EGZ) characterized by a local peak of the skewness factor. Then, the process of passive scalar transport from a forest canopy into a clear atmosphere is studied for two cases, i.e., when the concentration held by the forest canopy is either constant or variable. While this difference has little influence on the concentration patterns, results show that it has an important influence on the concentration magnitude as well as on the dynamics of the total concentration in the atmosphere.

Turbulent collapse and recovery are both observed to occur abruptly in the atmospheric stable boundary layer (SBL). The understanding and predictability of turbulent recovery remains limited, reducing numerical weather prediction accuracy. Previous studies have shown that regime occupation is the result of the net effect of highly variable processes, from turbulent to synoptic scales, making stochastic methods a compelling approach. Idealized stable boundary layer models have shown that under some circumstances, regimes can be related to the stable branches of model equilibria, and an additional unstable equilibrium is predicted. This work seeks to determine the extent to which the SBL regime occupation can be explained using a one-dimensional stochastic differential equation (SDE). The drift and diffusion coefficients of the SDE of an input time series are approximated from the statistics of its averaged time tendencies. These approximated coefficients are fit using Gaussian Process Regression. Probabilistic estimates of the system's equilibrium points are then found and used to create an empirical bifurcation diagram without making any prior assumptions on the dynamical form of the system. This data driven bifurcation diagram is compared to modelled predictions. The analysis is repeated on several meteorological towers around the world to assess the influence of local meteorological settings. This work provides empirical insights into the nature of regime dynamics and the extent to which the SBL displays hysteresis. / Graduate

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(理学) / 乙第12913号 / 論理博第1549号 / 新制||理||1591(附属図書館) / 32123 / 名古屋大学大学院理学研究科 / (主査)准教授 林 泰一, 教授 石川 裕彦, 教授 余田 成男 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

The following work represents the research attempt of Dr. Frasier's group to develop a FMCW wind profiler for atmospheric boundary layer studies. The hardware development and integration are described in detail.

This thesis studies the implementation of an Explicit Algebraic Reynolds-Stress Model(EARSM) for Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) in an open source ComputationalFluid Dynamics (CFD) software, OpenFOAM, following the guidance provided by thewind company ENERCON that aims to make use of this novel model to improvesites’ wind-field predictions. After carefully implementing the model in OpenFOAM,the EARSM implementation is verified and validated by testing it with a stratifiedCouette flow case. The former was done by feeding mean flow properties, takenfrom OpenFOAM, in a python tool containing the full EARSM system of equationsand constants, and comparing the resulting flux profiles with the ones extracted bythe OpenFOAM simulations. Subsequently, the latter was done by comparing theprofiles of the two universal functions used by Monin-Obukhov Similarity Theory(MOST) for mean velocity and temperature to the results obtained by Želi et al. intheir study of the EARSM applied to a single column ABL, in “Modelling of stably-stratified, convective and transitional atmospheric boundary layers using the explicitalgebraic Reynolds-stress model” (2021). The verification of the model showed minordifferences between the flux profiles from the python tool and OpenFOAM thus, themodel’s implementation was deemed verified, while the validation step showed nodifference in the unstable and neutral stratification cases, but a significant discrepancyfor stably stratified flow. Nonetheless, the reason behind the inconsistency is believedto be related to the choice of boundary conditions thus, the model’s implementationitself is considered validated. Finally, the comparison between the EARSM and the k − ε model showed thatthe former is able to capture the physics of the flow properties where the latter failsto. In particular, the diagonal momentum fluxes resulting from the EARSM reflectthe observed behaviour of being different from each other, becoming isotropic withaltitude in the case of unstable stratification, and having magnitude u′u′ > v′v′ > w′w′ for stably stratified flows. On the other hand, the eddy viscosity assumption used bythe k − ε model computes the diagonal momentum fluxes as being equal to each other.Moreover, the EARSM captures more than one non-zero heat flux component in theCouette flow case, which has been observed to be the case in literature, while the eddydiffusivity assumption used by the k − ε model only accounts for one non-zero heat fluxcomponent.

This thesis deals with Large Eddy Simulations (LES) of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL), focusing on studying the resolution dependence of turbulent passive scalar transport within the layer. The ABL is the lowest part of the atmosphere, where humans live and conduct most of their daily activities. Here, a scalar was injected at four different heights in a mixed shear- and convective-driven ABL, which was simulated using the Spectral Element Method (SEM) code Nek5000. The statistics of the four scalars were analysed and their resolution dependence was studied and compared to that of non-scalar quantities. No significant resolution dependence was found with regards to non-scalar quantities, while scalar quantities show a rather strong dependence on resolution especially in the first quarter of the simulation. Negative concentration values are found within the layer and some approaches to solve the problem are proposed. Statistics alone provide an accurate description of the general ABL behaviour, but are found to be insufficient to capture the dynamics of the scalar injection, which ought to be analysed with more advanced methods (e.g. modal decomposition). The structures arising within the layer are also analysed, and further work regarding the study of scalar fronts is suggested.

La modélisation par simulation des grandes échelles (Large-Eddy Simulation - LES) des processus physiques régissant la couche limite atmosphérique (CLA) demeure complexe de part la difficulté des modèles à capter l'évolution de la turbulence entre différentes conditions de stratification. De ce fait, l'étude LES du cycle diurne complet de la CLA comprenant des situations convectives la journée et des conditions stables la nuit est très peu documenté. La simulation de la couche limite stable où la turbulence est faible, intermittente et qui est caractérisée par des structures turbulentes de petite taille est tout particulièrement compliquée. En conséquence, la capacité de la LES à bien reproduire les conditions météorologiques de la CLA, notamment en situation stable, est étudiée à l'aide du code de mécanique des fluides développé par EDF R&D, Code_Saturne. Dans une première étude, le modèle LES est validé sur un cas de couche limite convective quasi stationnaire sur terrain homogène. L'influence des modèles sous-maille de Smagorinsky, Germano-Lilly, Wong-Lilly et WALE (Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity) ainsi que la sensibilité aux méthodes de paramétrisation sur les champs moyens, les flux et les variances est discutées. Dans une seconde étude le cycle diurne complet de la CLA pendant la campagne de mesure Wangara est modélisé. L'écart aux mesures étant faible le jour, ce travail se concentre sur les difficultés rencontrées la nuit à bien modéliser la couche limite stable. L'impact de différents modèles sous-maille ainsi que la sensibilité au coefficient de Smagorinsky ont été analysés. Par l'intermédiaire d'un couplage radiatif réalisé en LES, les répercussions du rayonnement infrarouge et solaire sur le jet de basse couche nocturne et le gradient thermique près de la surface sont exposées. De plus l'adaptation de la résolution du domaine à l'intensité de la turbulence et la forte stabilité atmosphérique durant l'expérience Wangara sont commentées. Enfin un examen des oscillations numériques inhérentes à Code_Saturne est réalisé afin d'en limiter les effets / Large-eddy simulation (LES) of the physical processes in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) remains a complex subject. LES models have difficulties to capture the evolution of the turbulence in different conditions of stratification. Consequently, LES of the whole diurnal cycle of the ABL including convetive situations in daytime and stable situations in the night time is seldom documented. The simulation of the stable atmospheric boundary layer which is characterized by small eddies and by weak and sporadic turbulence is espacialy difficult. Therefore The LES ability to well reproduce real meteorological conditions, particularly in stable situations, is studied with the CFD code developed by EDF R&D, Code_Saturne. The first study consist in validate LES on a quasi-steady state convective case with homogeneous terrain. The influence of the subgrid-scale models (Smagorinsky model, Germano-Lilly model, Wong-Lilly model and Wall-Adapting Local Eddy-viscosity model) and the sensitivity to the parametrization method on the mean fields, flux and variances are discussed.In a second study, the diurnal cycle of the ABL during Wangara experiment is simulated. The deviation from the measurement is weak during the day, so this work is focused on the difficulties met during the night to simulate the stable atmospheric boundary layer. The impact of the different subgrid-scale models and the sensitivity to the Smagorinsky constant are been analysed. By coupling radiative forcing with LES, the consequences of infra-red and solar radiation on the nocturnal low level jet and on thermal gradient, close to the surface, are exposed. More, enhancement of the domain resolution to the turbulence intensity and the strong atmospheric stability during the Wangara experiment are analysed. Finally, a study of the numerical oscillations inherent to Code_Saturne is realized in order to decrease their effects