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The paper and the graphics industries use two instruments with different optical geometry (d/0 and 45/0) to measure the quality of paper prints. The instruments have been reported to yield incompatible measurements and even rank samples differently in some cases, causing communication problems between these sectors of industry.A preliminary investigation concluded that the inter-instrument difference could be significantly influenced by external factors (background, calibration, heterogeneity of the medium). A simple methodology for eliminating these external factors and thereby minimizing the instrument differences has been derived. The measurements showed that, when the external factors are eliminated, and there is no fluorescence or gloss influence, the inter-instrument difference becomes small, depends on the instrument geometry, and varies systematically with the scattering, absorption, and transmittance properties of the sample.A detailed description of the impact of the geometry on the results has been presented regarding a large sample range. Simulations with the radiative transfer model DORT2002 showed that the instruments measurements follow the physical radiative transfer model except in cases of samples with extreme properties. The conclusion is that the physical explanation of the geometrical inter-instrument differences is based on the different degree of light permeation from the two geometries, which eventually results in a different degree of influence from near-surface bulk scattering. It was also shown that the d/0 instrument fulfils the assumptions of a diffuse field of reflected light from the medium only for samples that resemble the perfect diffuser but it yields an anisotropic field of reflected light when there is significant absorption or transmittance. In the latter case, the 45/0 proves to be less anisotropic than the d/0.In the process, the computational performance of the DORT2002 has been significantly improved. After the modification of the DORT2002 in order to include the 45/0 geometry, the Gauss-Newton optimization algorithm for the solution of the inverse problem was qualified as the most appropriate one, after testing different optimization methods for performance, stability and accuracy. Finally, a new homotopic initial-value algorithm for routine tasks (spectral calculations) was introduced, which resulted in a further three-fold speedup of the whole algorithm.The paper and the graphics industries use two instruments with different optical geometry (d/0 and 45/0) to measure the quality of paper prints. The instruments have been reported to yield incompatible measurements and even rank samples differently in some cases, causing communication problems between these sectors of industry.A preliminary investigation concluded that the inter-instrument difference could be significantly influenced by external factors (background, calibration, heterogeneity of the medium). A simple methodology for eliminating these external factors and thereby minimizing the instrument differences has been derived. The measurements showed that, when the external factors are eliminated, and there is no fluorescence or gloss influence, the inter-instrument difference becomes small, depends on the instrument geometry, and varies systematically with the scattering, absorption, and transmittance properties of the sample.A detailed description of the impact of the geometry on the results has been presented regarding a large sample range. Simulations with the radiative transfer model DORT2002 showed that the instruments measurements follow the physical radiative transfer model except in cases of samples with extreme properties. The conclusion is that the physical explanation of the geometrical inter-instrument differences is based on the different degree of light permeation from the two geometries, which eventually results in a different degree of influence from near-surface bulk scattering. It was also shown that the d/0 instrument fulfils the assumptions of a diffuse field of reflected light from the medium only for samples that resemble the perfect diffuser but it yields an anisotropic field of reflected light when there is significant absorption or transmittance. In the latter case, the 45/0 proves to be less anisotropic than the d/0.In the process, the computational performance of the DORT2002 has been significantly improved. After the modification of the DORT2002 in order to include the 45/0 geometry, the Gauss-Newton optimization algorithm for the solution of the inverse problem was qualified as the most appropriate one, after testing different optimization methods for performance, stability and accuracy. Finally, a new homotopic initial-value algorithm for routine tasks (spectral calculations) was introduced, which resulted in a further three-fold speedup of the whole algorithm. / QC 20100707 / PaperOpt, Paper Optics and Colour

Quantum information technology is an emerging field with important applications such as quantum cryptography and teleportation, quantum imaging and lithography. These applications make use of single photons and pairs of entangled photons. In this work, we experimentally generate and attempt to detect the entangled photons. The entangled photon pairs are produced using a nonlinear crystal of beta bariumborate through a process of spontaneous parametric down-conversion (SPDC). Alignment necessary to detect the entangled photon pairs is implemented using a HeNe laser. The experimental results reveal key signatures of the down-converted photons: (i) energy conservation as the wave length of generated photons (810 nm) is two times larger than that of the photons used to optically pump SPDC (405 nm), which is shown by using a 10-nm band-pass filter centred around 810 nm; (ii) the angles between the two photons of a pair correspond to the configuration of momentum conservation calculated analytically;(iii) the photons arrived at the detectors within the jitter time of those; and (iv) orthogonal polarisation of down-converted photons (810 nm) with respect to pump photons (405 nm). These findings show the consequences of SPDC.

An optical frequency comb is a structure of equidistant, coherent spectral components which can be thought of as a large array of individual phase-locked laser sources. Their utilization in precision spectroscopy garnering part of the 2005 Nobel prize, optical frequency combs constitute a relatively novel technology with a large number of potential and actual applications. The research interest grew further with the 2007 discovery of comb structures in microresonators enclosing a nonlinear Kerr medium pumped by an external continuous wave laser, offering both substantially wider combs and the prospect of chip-scale integration. In this thesis work, the modeling of frequency comb spectra generated through optical Kerr cavities is considered using both an Ikeda map and the mean-field Lugiato-Lefever equation to describe the intracavity field evolution. Derivations of these mathematical models are first reviewed alongside relevant physics. They are then treated analytically to constrain model parameters to regions of interest in the context of Kerr-comb dynamics. Finally, numerical parameter sweeps are conducted in both models with respect to the pump power and frequency detuning, where the Ikeda map is additionally examined in the high-energy regime not faithfully described by the Lugiato-Lefever equation. The produced phase diagrams reveal a complex landscape of dynamics including Turing patterns, temporal cavity solitons, breathers and chaos. Ikeda map parameters in the high-energy regime capable of supporting previously reported super energetic cavity solitons are also investigated. Lastly, the numerical simulation package developed for parameter sweeps is presented.

This thesis intends to familiarize the reader with the concepts of photon statistics and correlations in quantum optics. Developing light sources that emit quantum states is central for the realization of quantum technologies. One important step in characterizing these sources is the measurement of field fluctuations and correlations, by coincidence measurements. The expectation value of a coincidence measurement, a simultaneous measurement of two intensities (or, more general, four fields), is represented by the fourth-order correlation function. The value of the correlation function, at zero delay between the detection of two photons, reveals important properties of the state to which they belonged, for example the fluctuations of the photon number. Since predictability is important for many applications, light sources emitting single photons are also characterized by the indistinguishability of consecutively emitted photons, or of two photons from separate emitters. In paper I we investigate blinking behaviour in quantum emitters, and its effect on the interference pattern and photon statistics with photons from two separate emitters. Blinking refers to an emitters transition into a non-emitting state, and subsequent transition back to an emitting state. We show that blinking can not be treated as linear loss, when measuring the fourth-order correlation function for two emitters in a Hong-Ou-Mandel setup. In general, a measurement of the fourth-order correlation function is robust to loss, which makes it a very practical tool. However, the relation between recorded coincidence counts and the correlation function is only direct in the limit of zero detection efficiency, and depends on the detection system. In paper II, we show that by adding a variable attenuation in the beam path, we can trace back to the ''true'' value of the correlation function at zero quantum efficiency. This method improves accuracy in correlation measurements by decreasing a systematic error at the expense of an increased statistical error, which is easier to handle, extending the use of coincidence methods to classical and non-classical multi-photon states. / <p>QC 20180517</p>

The algebra of SU(2) is ubiquitous in physics, applicable both to the atomic spin states and the polarisation states of light. The method developed by Majorana and Schwinger to represent pure, symmetric spin-states of arbitrary value as a product of spin-1/2 states is a powerful tool that allows for a great conceptual and practical simplification. Foremost, it allows the representation of a qudit on the same geometry as a qubit, i.e., the Bloch sphere. An experimental implementation of the Majorana representation in the realm of quantum optics is presented. The technique allows the projection of arbitrary quantum states from a coherent state input. It is also shown that the method can be used to synthesise arbitrary interference patterns with unit visibility, and without resorting to quantum resources. In this context, it is argued that neither the shape nor the visibility of the interference pattern is a good measure of quantumness. It is only the measurement scheme that allows for the perceived quantum behaviour. The Majorana representation also proves useful in delineating uncertainty limits of states with a particular spin value. Issues with traditional uncertainty relations involving the SU(2) operators, such as trivial bounds for certain states and non-invariance, are thereby resolved with the presented pictorial solution. / <p>QC 20170428</p>

Fine-pitch ferroelectric domain gratings are extensively used for generation of light in the visible and near-infrared spectral regions through quasi-phase matched (QPM) frequency conversion. Sub-μm QPM devices enables demonstration of nonlinear optics with counterpropagating waves, a field of nonlinear optics which remains sparsely explored due to the difficulty of fabricatinghigh quality gratings. In recent years, bulk Rb-doped KTiOPO4 (RKTP) has emerged as a highly promising nonlinear materials for fabrication of fine-pitch QPM devices through periodic electric-field poling. RKTP possesses large optical nonlinearity and high resistance to optical damage, while demonstrating improved material homogeneity and lower ionic conductivity than its isomorphs, which are important features for poling. Although fine-pitch QPM gratings, as well as large aperture QPM devices, have been demonstrated, fabrication of sub-μm high quality QPM devices remains a challenge. The primary aim of this research was to develop a reliable method to fabricate high-quality sub-μm periodically poled RKTP crystals (PPRKTP) and exploit them in novel optical applications. For this purpose, a novel poling method was developed. It was based on periodic modulation of the coercive field through ion exchange, where K+ ions are exchanged with Rb+ in the crystal, to modulate the coercive field and the ionic conductivity. This enables periodic poling of higher quality and with shorter period than ever before. High quality PPRKTP with a period of 755 nm were fabricated and used to demonstrate the first cascaded mirrorless optical parametric oscillator (MOPO), as well as the first MOPO pumped by a Q-switched laser. PPRKTP samples for blue light generation were fabricated, and second harmonic generation (SHG) was investigated with a high power 946 nm fiber laser. Up to 2 W of blue power was demonstrated for bulk samples, where the output power was limited by absorption of the SHG, leading to thermal dephasing of the devices. Laser-written waveguides were fabricated in PPRKTP for the first time, and a record high SHG power of 76 mW was obtained. Finally, the high-temperature stability of ferroelectric domain gratings was investigated. This is of utmost importance when a PPRKTP crystal is used as a seed for crystal growth. It was found that for charged domains walls, the domain-wall motion was highly anisotropic with rapid movement in y-direction while only small movements were observed in the x-direction of the crystal. / Ickelinjära ferroelektriska kristaller med artificiella domängitter med perioder av några mikrometer används idag för generering av ljus i de synliga och nära-infraröda våglängdsområdena, genom kvasifasmatchad (QPM) frekvenskonvertering. Med sub-μm QPM domängitter kan man åstadkomma ickelinjära optiska effekter med motpropagerande parametriska ljusvågor. Detta är ett område av den ickelinjära optiken som fortfarande är tämligen outforskat på grund av svårigheten med att tillverka högkvalitativa domängitter.  Under de senaste åren har Rb-dopat KTiOPO4 (RKTP) blivit ett mycket lovande ickelinjärt material för tillverkning av QPM-gitter med mycket korta perioder genom periodisk elektrisk fält polning. RKTP kristallen har en hög optisk ickelinejäritet och den tål höga optiska intensiteter, samtidigt som materialet har bättre materialhomogenitet och lägre jonledningsförmåga än vad dess isomorfa kristaller har. De två senare egenskaperna har visat sig viktiga för att få en lyckad polning. Fastän QPM-gitter med kort periodicitet, liksom QPM-gitter med stor apertur, har demonstrerats, är tillverkningen av högkvalitativa QPM-kristaller med sub-µm perioder fortfarande en utmaning. Det primära syftet med denna avhandling var att utveckla en pålitlig metod för att tillverka högkvalitativa sub-μm periodiskt polade RKTP kristaller (PPRKTP) och utnyttja dem i nya optiska tillämpningar. I detta syfte utvecklades en ny polningsmetod. Den baseras på periodiskt jonutbyte, där K+ joner byts mot Rb+ i kristallen, vilket resulterar i en samtidig modulation av materialets koerciva fält och jonledningsförmåga. Detta möjliggör i sin tur periodisk polning av högre kvalitet och med kortare perioder än någonsin tidigare har uppnåtts. Högkvalitativa PPRKTP kristaller med en period på 755 nm tillverkades och användes för att demonstrera den första kaskaderade spegelfria optiska parametriska oscillatorn (MOPO), liksom den första MOPO processen pumpad av en Q-switchad laser. Vidare utvecklades PPRKTP-kristaller för generering av blått ljus via frekvensdubbling. Dessa utvärderades med hjälp av en högeffekts-fiberlaser vid 946 nm. Upp till 2 W av blått ljus erhölls för bulkkristallerna. Uteffekten begränsades av absorption av det blåa frekvensdubblade ljuset, vilket ledde till urfasning i QPM-gittret p.g.a. termiska effekter. Laserskrivna vågledare tillverkades sedan i PPRKTP för första gången, och en rekordhög effekt på 76 mW erhölls via frekvensdubbling. Slutligen undersöktes stabiliteten hos de periodiskt polade domängitterna vid höga temperaturer. Det är viktigt att domängittrena är stabila när PPRKTP kristallerna används som ympämne för kristalltillväxt. Det visade sig att instabila domänväggar flyttade sig mycket anisotropt, med en snabb rörelse i kristallens y-riktning och en långsam rörelse i kristallens x-riktning. / <p>QC 20170519</p>

This thesis presents experimental studies of three different chemical reaction steps relevant for heterogeneous catalysis: dissociation, desorption, and oxidation. CO on single-crystal metal surfaces was chosen as the model systems. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) provide information about the electronic structure, and were performed on CO/Fe to measure both a non-dissociative, and a pre-dissociative state. The measurement on the pre-dissociative state showed a π →  π* excitation, which implies a partly broken internal π bond in the molecule. Ultrafast laser-induced reactions were used to examine the dynamic properties of desorption and oxidation. Here CO/Ru and CO/O/Ru were used as model systems. Desorption of CO from a Ru surface involve both hot electrons and phonons. In the case of CO oxidation from CO/O/Ru a pronounced wavelength dependence of the branching ratio between desorption and oxidation was observed. Excitation with 400 nm showed a factor of 3-4 higher selectivity towards oxidation than 800 nm. This was attributed to coupling to transiently excited, non-thermalized electrons. Finally, by performing optical pump/x-ray probe XAS and XES changes in the electronic structure during the reaction could be followed, both for desorption and oxidation. In the CO/Ru experiment, two different transient excitation paths were observed, one leading to a precursor state, and one where CO moves into a more highly coordinated site. Using selective excitation in XES, these were shown to coexist on the surface. In the oxidation experiment, probing the reacting species located near the transition state region in an associative catalytic surface reaction was demonstrated for the very first time.

At the MAX-IV lab in Lund, there is a current goal to build a new soft X-Ray laser. The beam will be generated from a free-electron laser (FEL), which is an instrument consisting of high-speed electrons. The electrons move through alternating magnetic fields, causing the beam to become monochromatic. After the FEL, the Xrays will enter a beamline consisting of different optical components, such as mirrors, gratings and slits. This project investigated the necessary parameter values of the components, in order for the new X-Ray laser to focus the beam enough. The project consisted of a theoretical part and a simulation part. The use of so-called Kirkpatrick-Baez mirrors enables the beam to be very focused. The best focus achieved was 7.23um*10.87um for ''Pink beamline'' and the intensity at the end was 71.5%, which meant that only 30% of the rays were lost. For the monochromatic beamline, a loss of intensity is inevitable. With a pair of KBmirrors, this beam was focused to be 6.95um*9.80um. The energy spread is ranging from 6.198 eV to 0.3442 eV. The analytical calculations for the spot size matched well with the simulations. The pink beamline which was built in Ray satisfied the criterias of a spot size and intensity loss. The monochromatic beamline did fullfil the criterias of spot size and narrowing the energy spread. A loss of intensity will for this beamline be inevitable. Studying the misalignment effect showed that the components were most sensitive for vertical misalignment. The most sensitive parameters were the curvature of the mirrors.

Direct volume rendering techniques for scalar fields make use of transfer functions to map optical properties to the field; the field can subsequently be visualized through the drawing of isosurfaces in the volume spanned by the field. The utility of this approach is limited in the case of nested or clustered structures with the same isovalue and further does not easily allow for quantitative measurements of the visualized data. This report explores the use of topological structures (contour trees and Morse-Smale complexes) as an augmentation of traditional direct volume rendering and describes a fully functional implementation in the visualization software Inviwo. The implementation is evaluated through analysis of valency charge density fields in cubic MgO2 and FeO2. It is demonstrated that both contour trees and Morse-Smale complexes provide information and segmentation of initial volume data that allows for selective transfer function application (based on the segmentation), on-demand information on critical points and an overview of the scalar field through a topological representation embedded in the visualized volume. Analysis of the provided charge density fields show that contour trees generate physically irrelevant artefacts and thus are ill-suited for analysing highly symmetric data. On the other hand, the Morse-Smale complex approach is used to extract information of the bond strength of O-O contacts in MgO2 and FeO2 consistent with previous findings, as well as information on electronic charge configuration consistent with previous findings on MgO2. In the case of FeO2, the electronic configuration results are not consistent. This is speculated to be due to a combination of factors, most notably the lack of periodic boundary conditions in the implementation and the more complicated structure of FeO2.   In light of the partially accurate data analysis, as well as the added functionality and utility provided to visualization software, this approach to topology-guided visualization is considered promising and worthy of further study and/or development.