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No. of bitstreams: 1 nunes_pr_me_bot.pdf: 4789833 bytes, checksum: 772d289b789606f7e85653d2c289a43a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-02-17 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Introdução: A gestação é uma condição fisiológica que pode apresentar maior suscetibilidade ao desequilíbrio entre fatores pró e antioxidativos, evoluindo assim com dano celular e resposta inflamatória. A autofagia é um processo que elimina organelas e proteínas danificadas do citoplasma, com potente mecanismo anti-inflamatório responsável pela manutenção da homeostase celular. A autofagia pode controlar a inflamação por meio da inibição da ativação do inflamassoma, complexo essencial para a liberação de citocinas pró-inflamatórias. Assim, alterações nesses processos podem relacionar-se com disfunções celulares e doenças sistêmicas. Objetivos: Este projeto teve como objetivo avaliar se a exposição de explantes placentários a diferentes concentrações de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) é capaz de induzir autofagia e levar a ativação do inflamassoma NLRP3. Métodos: Explantes placentários de gestantes normais obtidos após o parto foram cultivados em diferentes concentrações de H2O2 por 4 e 24 h após a avaliação da viabilidade dos mesmos nesses períodos. As enzimas superóxido dismutase (SOD) e catalase foram avaliadas nos sobrenadantes das culturas após 4 h. As expressões gênicas de marcadores de autofagia (LC3-II, beclin-1 e p62), do inflamassoma (NLRP3 e caspase-1) e das citocinas IL-1β, IL-10 e TNF-α foram avaliadas por RT-qPCR. Os níveis de gonadotrofina coriônica (hCG), proteína de choque térmico 70 (Hsp70) e citocinas IL-1β, IL-10 e TNF-α foram determinados por ensaio imunoenzimático (ELISA) após 24 h de cultura. Resultados: Os níveis de LDH foram crescentes conforme o tempo de cultura, sendo que as culturas de 24 h apresentaram-se com viabilidade celular adequada para o estudo. Os níveis proteicos de catalase e Hsp70, bem como a expressão gênica de LC3-II, beclin-1 e p62 apresentaram níveis crescentes e relacionados às maiores concentrações de H2O2. As concentrações proteicas de SOD, hCG e TNF-α foram maiores nas culturas com 100 µM de H2O2. A expressão gênica de TNF-α, IL-1β, NLRP3 e caspase-1 foram elevadas em 1000 µM de H2O2. Além disso, a expressão proteica de IL-1β também foi maior nessa concentração. As concentrações gênicas e proteicas de IL-10 decresceram de acordo com o aumento da concentração de H2O2. Conclusões: Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que o H2O2 é capaz de induzir o estado de estresse oxidativo placentário, induzir autofagia, ativar o inflamassoma e assim aumentar a produção de citocinas inflamatórias. / Introduction: Pregnancy is a physiological condition characterized by increased susceptibility to oxidative stress, which can lead to cell damage and inflammatory response. Autophagy is a process that removes damaged organelles and proteins from the cytoplasm. It works as potent anti-inflammatory mechanism, responsible for maintaining cellular homeostasis. Autophagy can control inflammatory responses by regulating the activation of inflammasome, an essential complex for pro-inflammatory cytokine release. Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate whether placental explants exposure to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is able to induce autophagy and inflammasome activation. Methods: Placental explants achieved from normal pregnant women after delivery were cultured in different concentrations of H2O2 for 4 and 24 h after viability evaluation for these periods. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase were evaluated in culture supernatants after 4 h. Gene expressions of autophagy markers (LC3-II, beclin-1 and p62), inflammasome (NLRP3 and caspase-1) and IL-1β, IL-10 and TNF-α were assessed by RT-qPCR. Levels of chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG), heat shock protein (Hsp70) and IL-1β, IL-10 and TNF-α were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) after 24 h of culture. Results: LDH levels were increased according to culture time, and the 24 h cultures presented adequate cell viability for the study. The protein levels of catalase and Hsp70, as well as the gene expression of LC3-II, beclin-1 and p62 presented increasing levels and related to the higher concentrations of H2O2. Protein concentrations of SOD, hCG and TNF-α were higher in cultures with 100 μM of H2O2. Gene expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, NLRP3 and caspase-1 were raised in 1000 μM of H2O2. In addition, IL-1β protein expression was also higher at this concentration. Gene and protein concentrations of IL-10 decreased as the H2O2 concentration increased. Conclusions: Our results demonstrate that H2O2 is able to induce a state of placental oxidative stress, induce autophagy, activate the inflammasome and then increase the production of inflammatory cytokines. / FAPESP: 2014/25611-5

La réponse au choc thermique est un mécanisme de défense largement décrit au cours duquel l’expression préférentielle des protéines de choc thermique Hsp aide la cellule à récupérer des dommages causés par l’hyperthermie, comme la dénaturation/agrégation des protéines. Une des conséquences du choc thermique mise en évidence au laboratoire, est l’activation du facteur de transcription NFκB. Cette activation a lieu pendant la période de récupération suivant ce stress. Par comparaison de la réponse au choc thermique de cellules témoins ou déficientes en NFκB, nous avons cherché à étudier les conséquences de l’activation de NFκB par le choc thermique. Nous avons montré que NFκB active un mécanisme augmentant la survie des cellules soumises à une hyperthermie : l’autophagie. L’absence d’induction de ce mécanisme conduit à la mort par nécrose des cellules déplétées en NFκB. Dans ces cellules, l’induction artificielle de l’autophagie restaure une survie normale au stress thermique. Nous avons montré que les principaux régulateurs de l’autophagie (complexes mTOR et PI3Kinase de Classe III) ne sont pas des cibles modulées par NFκB, en réponse à une hyperthermie. En revanche, l’accumulation de protéines dénaturées voire agrégées est un élément primordial pour l’activation de l’autophagie-dépendante de NFκB. En effet dans les cellules déficientes pour NFκB, contrairement aux cellules témoins, l’accumulation de protéines agrégées induite par le traitement hyperthermique, mais aussi par l’expression de formes mutées d’HspB5, n’est pas résorbée ; ceci indique que le contrôle qualité des protéines est altéré dans ces cellules. Cette altération pourrait provenir d’un défaut de formation du complexe BAG3-HspB8 en absence de NFκB. En effet, nous avons montré que la forte expression des gènes bag3 et hspb8, induite suite au stress thermique, est dépendante de NFκB et que l’accumulation du complexe BAG3-HspB8, observé dans les cellules témoins soumises au choc thermique, est inhibée dans les cellules déficientes pour NFκB. Nos résultats démontrent que NFκB induit un processus autophagique en réponse à l’agrégation protéique induite par l’hyperthermie. Ce mécanisme, nécessitant la formation du complexe BAG3-HspB8, augmente la survie des cellules probablement par l’élimination des protéines agrégées générées au cours du stress thermique / The heat shock response is a widely described defense mechanism during which the preferential expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps) helps the cell to recover from thermal damages such as protein denaturation/aggregation. We have previously reported that NFκB transcription factor is activated during the recovery period after heat shock. Thus, we aimed to analyze the consequences of NFκB activation during heat shock recovery, by comparing the heat shock response of NFκB competent and incompetent cells. We demonstrated that NFκB plays a major and crucial role during the heat shock response by activating autophagy, which increases the survival of heat-treated cells. Indeed, we observed that autophagy is not activated during heat shock recovery leading to an increased level of necrotic cell death in NFκB incompetent cells. Moreover, when autophagy is artificially induced in these cells, the heat shock cytotoxicity is turned back to normal. We showed that the key regulators of autophagy (mTOR complex, and class III PI3Kinase complex) are not regulated by NFκB after heat shock. In contrast, we observed that aberrantly folded/aggregated proteins accumulation is a prime event in the activation of NFκB -mediated autophagy. Moreover, NFκB -depleted cells accumulate higher levels of protein aggregates induced by either heat shock treatment or mutated form of HspB5, indicating that the protein quality control process seem to be altered in these cells. This alteration could be caused by a defect in BAG3-HspB8 complex formation in NFκB -depleted cells. We demonstrated that heat shock treatment induces a NFB-dependent overexpression of the bag3 and hspb8 genes. Moreover, the accumulation of BAG3-HspB8 complex in heat shocked NFκB -competent cells is inhibited by NFκB depletion. Our findings how / prove / highlight revealed that NFκB -induced autophagy during heat shock recovery is an additional response to protein denaturation/aggregation induced by heat shock. This process depends on the BAG3-HspB8 complex formation and increases cell survival, probably through clearance of aggregated proteins

Neste estudo foram avaliados os efeitos farmacológicos do vemurafenibe (inibidor BRAFV600E) e da cloroquina (inibidor de autofagia) na viabilidade celular e crescimento tumoral das sublinhagens de melanoma:G361 pLKO que expressa dermicidina e G361 IBC I com silenciamento da expressão. As células G-361 responderam a vemurafenibe (2 μM) e cloroquina (100 μM), isoladamente ou combinadas, com aumento apoptose, e redução das taxas de senescência. Vemurafenibe (50 mg/kg / 21 dias) inibiu o crescimento tumoral em camundongos imunodeficientes independente da expressão da DCD. A combinação com Cloroquina (30 mg/kg) a cada 24 horas, acelerou, enquanto a cada 72 horas, reduziu o crescimento tumoral. Os tumores apresentaram alterações morfológicas e núcleos atípicos; e não expressaram os marcadores S100, HMB-45, Mela-A ou citoqueratinas. Este trabalho confirmar a eficácia do vemurafenibe e sugere o potencial adjuvante da cloroquina no tratamento de melanomas. O estudo também confirma o papel da dermcidina como oncogne e fator de crescimento de células de melanoma maligno. / In this study we evaluated the pharmacological effects of vemurafenib ( inhibitor BRAFV600E) and chloroquine (autophagy inhibitor) in cell viability and tumor growth of two melanoma cell lines identified as G-361 pLKO, which expresses dermcidin, and G361 IBC I which silenced DCD expression. G-361 melanoma cells responded to vemurafenib (1-2 μM) and chloroquine (50-100 μM) alone or combined, with increased apoptosis rates, while decreasing senescent cells. Vemurafenib (50 mg/kg / 21 days) inhibited melanoma growth in immunodeficient mice independent of dermicidin. Chloroquine (30 mg/kg) in combination with vemurafenib, accelerated (at 24 hour interval), and reduced (at 72 hours interval), melanoma growth. Tumor tissues showed atypical cell morphology and nuclear histological patterns and melanocytic differentiation biomarkers S100, HMB-45, Melan-A or pancytokeratins were not. This work confirms the efficacy of vemurafenib and suggests potential adjuvant effect of chloroquine. It also confirms the role of dermcidin as growth factor and oncogene for melanoma cells.

A urocortina 2 (Ucn2) é um peptídeo que pertence à família dos fatores liberadores de corticotrofina (CRF) e, assim como seu receptor específico CRF2R? (corticotropin releasing factor receptor type 2?), encontram-se expressos no músculo esquelético. Embora tenha sido demonstrado que o tratamento sistêmico com Ucn2 seja capaz de induzir hipertrofia e prevenir a perda de massa muscular, nada se conhece acerca dos mecanismos moleculares através dos quais a Ucn2 desempenha suas ações biológicas. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar o mecanismo de ação da Ucn2 no músculo esquelético de roedores para o aparecimento da resposta hipertrófica e a possível participação das vias de sinalização Akt/mTOR, Akt/Foxo e ERK1/2 neste efeito anabólico. Para isto foi utilizado o modelo de transfecção in vivo da Ucn2 pelo método da eletroporação em músculos tibialis anterior de camundongos. Nestes músculos foram quantificados: 1) o estado de fosforilação de componentes efetores destas vias; 2) moléculas sinalizadoras da via autofágica; 3) a taxa de síntese proteica in vivo e 4) a expressão de genes relacionados à atrofia muscular (atrogenes). Outra metodologia utilizada para verificar o efeito direto da Ucn2 na musculatura esquelética foi a incubação in vitro de músculos soleus e EDL isolados de roedores com este peptídeo a fim de investigar a taxa de degradação proteica total, bem como a atividade dos sistemas proteolíticos lisossomal¸ ubiquitina-proteassoma e dependente de Ca+2. A superexpressão in vivo da Ucn2 por 14 dias promoveu hipertrofia e preveniu a atrofia em músculos tibialis anterior de camundongos normais e submetidos ao modelo de desnervação motora isquiática.Resumo Este crescimento muscular induzido pela Ucn2 in vivo foi associado a ativação das vias de sinalização AMPc/PKA/CREB, AMPc/Epac, Akt/mTOR/S6, Akt/mTOR/4E-BP1 e ERK1/2/eIF4E com consequente estimulação da síntese proteica. Em concordância, utilizando uma técnica de manipulação genética in vivo, demonstramos que a hipertrofia promovida pela Ucn2 é dependente da estimulação das cascatas de sinalização ativadas por Akt e ERK1/2. Ademais, essa alteração fenotípica promovida pela Ucn2 induziu melhora da resistência à fadiga muscular, sendo este impacto funcional dependentente de ERK1/2, mas não de Akt. Além disso, a superexpressão da Ucn2 induziu \"shifting\" para o tipo de fibra oxidativa (tipo I), sendo esta plasticidade possivelmente mediada por PGC-1?, o que pode ter contribuído pelo menos em parte, para o efeito benéfico promovido pela Ucn2 na função muscular. O efeito antiatrófico da Ucn2 in vivo foi associado à estimulação da via Akt/Foxo1,3 concomitante com a redução da atividade transcricional de Foxo, resultando na diminuição da expressão da E3-ligase atrogin-1 e do gene autofágico LC3. Em paralelo, a Ucn2 in vivo promoveu inibição do fluxo autofágico, inferido pelo acúmulo das proteínas LC3-I, LC3-II e p62 nestes músculos. Corroborando os achados in vivo, os efeitos antiproteolíticos da Ucn2 in vitro parecem ser mediados pelo AMPc e envolvem a supressão da atividade do sistema lisossomal/autofágico em músculos EDL de ratos normais. Portanto, além da participação de efetores dowsntream do AMPc, como PKA e EPAC, diferentes quinases participam dos efeitos biológicos da Ucn2 na musculatura esquelética. Esses resultados são importantes para caracterizar novas estratégias terapêuticas capazes de atuar no combate à atrofia muscular em diversas situações catabólicas. / Urocortin 2 (Ucn2) is a peptide that belongs to corticotrophin releasing factors (CRF) family and, as well as its specific receptor CRF2R? (corticotropin releasing factor receptor type 2?), are expressed in skeletal muscle. Although it has been demonstrated that Ucn2 systemic treatment is able to induce hypertrophy and prevent loss of muscle mass, nothing is known about the molecular mechanisms through which Ucn2 plays its biological actions. The main objective of this work was to investigate the Ucn2 mechanism of action in rodent skeletal muscle for the appearance of the hypertrophic response and the possible participation of Akt/mTOR, Akt/Foxo and ERK1/2 signaling pathways in this anabolic effect. For this, an in vivo transfection model of Ucn2 was used by the electroporation method in tibialis anterior muscles of mice. Were quantified in these muscles: 1) the phosphorylation state of effector components of these pathways; 2) signaling molecules of the autophagic pathway; 3) the rate of protein synthesis in vivo and 4) the expression of genes related to muscle atrophy (atrogenes). Another methodology used to verify the direct effect of Ucn2 in skeletal muscle was the incubation of soleus and EDL muscles isolated from rodents with this peptide in vitro in order to investigate the total rate of protein degradation, as well as the activity of the lysosomal, ubiquitin-proteasome and Ca+2 dependent proteolytic systems. Ucn2 overexpression in vivo for 14 days promoted hypertrophy and prevented atrophy in tibialis anterior muscles of normal mice and submitted to the sciatic motor denervation model. This muscle growth induced by Ucn2 in vivo was associated with the activation ofAbstract cAMP/PKA/CREB, cAMP/Epac, Akt/mTOR/S6, Akt/mTOR/4E-BP1 and ERK1/2/eIF4E signaling pathways with consequent stimulation of protein synthesis. In agreement, using a genetic manipulation technique in vivo, we demonstrated that the hypertrophy promoted by Ucn2 is dependent on the stimulation of the signaling cascades activated by Akt and ERK1/2. In addition, this phenotypic alteration promoted by Ucn2 induced an improvement in muscle fatigue resistance, being this functional impact dependent on ERK1/2, but not on Akt. Moreover, Ucn2 overexpression in vivo induced the shift to type I oxidative fiber, and this plasticity is possibly mediated by PGC-1?, which may have contributed at least in part to the beneficial effect promoted by Ucn2 in muscle function. The anti-atrophic effect of Ucn2 in vivo was associated with the stimulation of Akt/Foxo1,3 pathway concomitant with the reduction of Foxo transcriptional activity, resulting in a decrease in the expression of the atrogin-1 E3-ligase and of the autophagic gene LC3. In parallel, Ucn2 in vivo promoted inhibition of autophagic flow, inferred by the accumulation of LC3-I, LC3-II and p62 proteins in these muscles. Corroborating the in vivo findings, the antiproteolytic effects of Ucn2 in vitro appear to be mediated by cAMP and involve the suppression of lysosomal/autophagic system activity in EDL muscles of normal rats. Thus, in addition to the participation of cAMP dowsntream effectors, such as PKA and EPAC, different kinases participate in the biological effects of Ucn2 on skeletal muscle. These results are important to characterize new therapeutic strategies able to prevent muscular atrophy in several catabolic situations.

Autofagia é o processo catabólico que ocorre nos lisossomos, e tem por finalidade degradar os componentes celulares e proteínas que já não são mais funcionantes e, assim manter seu equilíbrio homeostático para sobreviverem adequadamente em condições estressantes. Diante das funções biológicas da autofagia identificadas até hoje, a relação entre autofagia celular e neoplasias está provavelmente entre as mais estudadas, devido ao papel duplo que a autofagia exerce sobre o desenvolvimento do câncer, podendo atuar como um mecanismo supressor de tumor ou, podendo ser um mecanismo fundamental para a sobrevivência de células neoplásicas. No entanto, em lesões potencialmente malignas não se sabe sobre o comportamento do processo autofágico. Dessa forma, nosso estudo se propôs a estudar o comportamento da autofagia em neoplasias e em lesões potencialmente malignas bucais e correlacionar com os parâmetros clínicos e a evolução dessas lesões. Para tal finalidade foi utilizado a técnica de imunoistoquímica para avaliar em amostras de mucosa normal, leucoplasias e carcinomas espinocelulares bucais, o percentual de células positivas para o marcador LC3-II. Foram avaliadas 7 amostras de mucosa bucal normal, 51 leucoplasias e 120 carcinomas espinocelulares. Para a análise de carcinomas espinocelulares foi construído um microarranjo tecidual com 2 cilindros de cada paciente. Observamos o aumento dos níveis de autofagia no carcinoma espinocelular bucal (p<0,001) em relação aos outro grupos, porém sem associação com a evolução e sobrevida desses pacientes. Entre as leucoplasias, observamos maior percentual de células positivas na camada intermediária de leucoplasias 12 displásicas (p=0,0319) e na camada basal de lesões com pior evoluação (p=0,0133). Concluimos que os níveis de autofagia aumentam durante o processo de carcinogênese bucal e estão correlacionados com o pior comportamento das leucoplasias. / Autophagy is a catabolic process to digest the cell components and proteins that are no functional anymore. Autophagy maintains the homeostasis in order to cells survive in stressful conditions. In view of the biological functions of autophagy identified to date, the relationship between cellular autophagy and neoplasia is probably among the most studied, due to the dual role that autophagy exerts on the development of cancer. Cell autophagy can act as a tumor suppressor mechanism, or as a key mechanism for the survival of neoplastic cells. However, it is not known in potentially malignant lesions how the autophagic process is controlled. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to assess the autophagic process in oral cancer and potentially malignant oral lesions and to correlate with clinical parameters and the evolution of these lesions. For this purpose, the immunohistochemical technique was used to evaluate the percentage of cells positive for the LC3-II marker in the normal mucosa, leukoplakia and oral squamous cell carcinoma samples. Seven samples of normal buccal mucosa, 51 leukoplakia and 120 squamous cell carcinomas were evaluated. For the squamous cell carcinomas analysis, a tissue microarray with 2 cylinders of each patient was constructed. We observed increased levels of autophagy in oral squamous cell carcinoma (p <0.001) in relation to the other groups, however no association with the prognosis and survival of these patients was detected. Among the leukoplakias, we observed a higher percentage of positive cells in the intermediate layer of dysplastic leukoplakias (p = 0.0319) and in the basal layer of lesions with worse prognosis (p = 0.0133). We conclude that autophagy levels increase during the process of oral carcinogenesis and are correlated with the worse behavior of leukoplakia

Autofagia é o processo catabólico que ocorre nos lisossomos, e tem por finalidade degradar os componentes celulares e proteínas que já não são mais funcionantes e, assim manter seu equilíbrio homeostático para sobreviverem adequadamente em condições estressantes. Diante das funções biológicas da autofagia identificadas até hoje, a relação entre autofagia celular e neoplasias está provavelmente entre as mais estudadas, devido ao papel duplo que a autofagia exerce sobre o desenvolvimento do câncer, podendo atuar como um mecanismo supressor de tumor ou, podendo ser um mecanismo fundamental para a sobrevivência de células neoplásicas. No entanto, em lesões potencialmente malignas não se sabe sobre o comportamento do processo autofágico. Dessa forma, nosso estudo se propôs a estudar o comportamento da autofagia em neoplasias e em lesões potencialmente malignas bucais e correlacionar com os parâmetros clínicos e a evolução dessas lesões. Para tal finalidade foi utilizado a técnica de imunoistoquímica para avaliar em amostras de mucosa normal, leucoplasias e carcinomas espinocelulares bucais, o percentual de células positivas para o marcador LC3-II. Foram avaliadas 7 amostras de mucosa bucal normal, 51 leucoplasias e 120 carcinomas espinocelulares. Para a análise de carcinomas espinocelulares foi construído um microarranjo tecidual com 2 cilindros de cada paciente. Observamos o aumento dos níveis de autofagia no carcinoma espinocelular bucal (p<0,001) em relação aos outro grupos, porém sem associação com a evolução e sobrevida desses pacientes. Entre as leucoplasias, observamos maior percentual de células positivas na camada intermediária de leucoplasias 12 displásicas (p=0,0319) e na camada basal de lesões com pior evoluação (p=0,0133). Concluimos que os níveis de autofagia aumentam durante o processo de carcinogênese bucal e estão correlacionados com o pior comportamento das leucoplasias. / Autophagy is a catabolic process to digest the cell components and proteins that are no functional anymore. Autophagy maintains the homeostasis in order to cells survive in stressful conditions. In view of the biological functions of autophagy identified to date, the relationship between cellular autophagy and neoplasia is probably among the most studied, due to the dual role that autophagy exerts on the development of cancer. Cell autophagy can act as a tumor suppressor mechanism, or as a key mechanism for the survival of neoplastic cells. However, it is not known in potentially malignant lesions how the autophagic process is controlled. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to assess the autophagic process in oral cancer and potentially malignant oral lesions and to correlate with clinical parameters and the evolution of these lesions. For this purpose, the immunohistochemical technique was used to evaluate the percentage of cells positive for the LC3-II marker in the normal mucosa, leukoplakia and oral squamous cell carcinoma samples. Seven samples of normal buccal mucosa, 51 leukoplakia and 120 squamous cell carcinomas were evaluated. For the squamous cell carcinomas analysis, a tissue microarray with 2 cylinders of each patient was constructed. We observed increased levels of autophagy in oral squamous cell carcinoma (p <0.001) in relation to the other groups, however no association with the prognosis and survival of these patients was detected. Among the leukoplakias, we observed a higher percentage of positive cells in the intermediate layer of dysplastic leukoplakias (p = 0.0319) and in the basal layer of lesions with worse prognosis (p = 0.0133). We conclude that autophagy levels increase during the process of oral carcinogenesis and are correlated with the worse behavior of leukoplakia

Os éteres difenílicos polibromados (PBDEs) são compostos amplamente utilizados como retardantes de chamas que foram introduzidos por volta da década de 1970, em uma gama de produtos industrializados, especialmente em aparelhos eletrônicos. No entanto, em contrapartida ao seu papel benéfico como dispositivo de segurança, esses compostos apresentam uma estrutura química que proporciona ao homem preocupantes efeitos tóxicos que, de acordo com vários estudos, são responsáveis por desencadearem problemas neurotóxicos e hormonais, assim como influenciarem no desenvolvimento de algumas doenças. Além disso, suas características físico-químicas permitem que eles sejam bioacumulados e persistentes no meio ambiente. Diante desses fatores, tornam-se importantes estudos que melhor caracterizem o mecanismo de ação desses compostos e, portanto, a proposta do projeto foi analisar os efeitos do congênere 2, 2\' ,3, 3\' ,4, 4\' ,5, 5\' ,6, 6\' decabromodifenil éter (BDE-209) em células de hepatocarcinoma humano do tipo HepG2, aplicando como método de análise os ensaios de citotoxicidade durante indução autofágica. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o BDE-209, como observados em outros estudos do nosso laboratório, não apresentou toxicidade acentuada em comparação aos outros congêneres, pois mostrou resultados significativos apenas nas maiores concentrações. A indução autofágica, por sua vez, não proporcionou efeitos protetivos contra a citotoxicidade do BDE, pelo contrário, ela foi capaz de perturbar ainda mais a homeostasia celular e de causar necrose na presença de 25 µmol.L-1 do congênere. Suplementariamente, foram coletadas amostras de sedimentos provenientes de uma lagoa pertencente à área de recarga do aquífero Guaraní no município de Ribeirão Preto para a quantificação de PBDEs com o objetivo de determinar o nível de contaminação desse ambiente. Estas amostras foram analisadas por cromatografia gasosa com detector por captura de elétrons (CG-ECD), após um processo de extração, clean up e pré-concentração. Os resultados obtidos mostraram a presença de seis BDEs com somatórias de suas concentrações nos valores de 4,03 ng.g-1 e 5,38 ng.g-1 em duas amostras coletas, tendo como congênere em destaque o 2, 2\', 4, 4\' tetrabromodifenil éter (BDE-47). / The polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are compounds widely used as flame retardants, introduced around 1970, in a diversity of industrial products especially electronics. However, in contrast to its beneficial role as a safety device, these compounds have a chemical structure, which provides to humans worrisome toxic effects, because according to several studies, they are responsible for triggering neurotoxic and hormonal problems, as well as influence in the development of some diseases. Moreover, its chemical composition allows them to be bioaccumulated, which gives potential effects, since they are persistent in the environment. Given these factors, studies that can better describe these compounds action mechanism are important. Therefore, the proposal of this project was to analyze the effect of 2, 2\' ,3, 3\' ,4, 4\' ,5, 5\' ,6, 6\'-decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) using as model the human hepatocellular carcinoma cells, HepG2, applying cytotoxicity assays during autophagic induction. The results showed that BDE-209, as observed in other studies of our group, induced no severe toxicity like other congeners as it showed significant results only in higher concentrations. The autophagic induction had no protective effects against the BDEs cytotoxicity, on the contrary, it was able to affect cells homeostasis and cause necrosis in the presence of 25 mol.L-1 of the congener. Additionally, sediment samples were collected from a recharge point of Guaraní aquifer in Ribeirão Preto for quantification of these compounds to determine the level of contamination in this environment. These samples were analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detector (CG-ECD) after a process of extraction, clean up and preconcentration. The results showed the presence of six BDEs with total concentration of 4.03 ng.g-1 and 5.38 ng.g-1 in two samples collected, which the main congener was 2, 2\', 4, 4\' tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47).

O reconhecimento de bactérias invasoras pelas células hospedeiras através do processo autofágico é um fator chave na determinação da infecção bacteriana. Escherichia coli enteroinvasora (EIEC) possui uma proteína, denominada IcsB, que em estudos em Shigella, é responsável pela inativação deste processo de degradação bacteriana. Uma vez que EIEC expressa menos IcsB do que S. flexneri, nos propusemos a investigar o processo autofágico na infecção por EIEC, utilizando as técnicas de mutação gênica por inserção, western-blot, microscopia de fluorescência e eletrônica de transmissão e microarray. Verificamos que a proteína IcsB é um fator de virulência importante na camuflagem de EIEC, pois quando pouco ou nada expresso, há um maior reconhecimento da bactéria pelas células hospedeiras, favorecendo sua menor disseminação. Isto corrobora não somente com a transcrição gênica, mas com a importância da sequência de nucleotídeos deste gene, uma vez que a cepa de E. coli SM124/13 complementada com o icsB de Shigella se mostrou mais eficiente na disseminação dentro da célula hospedeira. De forma interessante, IcsB apresentou um papel inédito na regulação da resposta inflamatória das células HeLa, onde a ausência de IcsB em EIEC promoveu uma intensa perturbação na homeostase da célula hospedeira, com aumento da secreção de IL-6, IL-8 e morte celular. Adicionalmente, ficou evidente que a célula eucariótica responde de maneira distinta frente a infecção por EIEC e Shigella flexneri. EIEC provavelmente ativou o processo autofágico em células humanas de forma não canônica. Nossa hipótese seria de que EIEC é reconhecida pelo processo autofágico, podendo ser este um importante fenômeno de reconhecimento bacteriano que colabore para a menor disseminação intracelular de EIEC, e assim tornar sua doença mais branda, quando comparada com a infecção por Shigella. / The invasive bacteria recognition by host cells through autophagy is a key factor for determining bacterial infection. Enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) express a protein IcsB, which in Shigella, is known for inactivating the bacterial degradation process. Once EIEC showed less expression of icsB when compared to S. flexneri, we proposed to investigate the autophagy caused by EIEC infection, using techniques such as gene mutation by insertion, western blot, fluorescence microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and microarray. Our results showed that IcsB protein is an important virulence factor in EIEC because it causes a camouflage of the bacteria in the eukaryotic cell. When there is a low expression of the protein, the cell recognition of the invasive bacteria is high, decreasing the bacteria dissemination. This found confirms the importance of the gene transcription and the gene sequence, since the strain E. coli SM124/13, complemented with icsB from Shigella, showed higher dissemination efficiency inside of the host cell. Interestingly, IcsB showed a new role on regulating the inflammatory response in Hela cells. The absence of IcsB in EIEC generated an intense disturbance of the cell homeostasis, increased the secretion of IL-6 and IL-8, and caused cell death. Additionally, our results revealed that eukaryotic cell infected by EIEC or Shigella flexneri showed distinguish responses. In EIEC infection, the autophagy was activated in human cells, but not in a conventional mode. Our hypothesis is that EIEC is recognized by autophagy, being an important cell process for bacterial recognition. This process can cause a decrease in the intracellular spread of EIEC making the infection less severe when compared to the infection caused by Shigella.

Ovarian carcinoma afflicts over 22,000 women each year with a 5 year survival rate of only 18% for stage IV patients [23]. Current treatment options are limited due to high rates of drug resistance and recurrence. Further, the identity of "precursor lesions" which give rise to various subclasses of epithelial ovarian cancer has been evasive. This is due to discovery of the cancer at already an advanced stage. Interestingly, endometriosis a benign but invasive gynecological disease has been described as a "precursor lesion" in the development of specific subtypes of ovarian cancer. Endometriotic cyst development involves the accumulation of "old blood" components including iron-rich heme. Published evidence implicates excess iron that is involved in the transformation of normal surface epithelial cells inducing morphological characteristics of clear cell ovarian cancer cells [13, 34]. Due to excess iron in endometriotic cysts, this essential element may play a transformative role in the development of clear cell ovarian cancer and possibly other subtypes [13, 35-38]. Further, studies show increased risk of developing ovarian cancer, particularly clear cell and endometrioid ovarian subtypes, in patients diagnosed with endometriosis [36, 37, 39, 40] . This thesis aims to initiate an investigation regarding the contribution of iron and endometriotic lesions in the development and progression of specific subtypes of epithelial ovarian cancers. Since there is a lack of well-validated and characterized endometriotic cell lines that could be used for endometriosis studies, we sought to develop an immortalized cell line for future endometriotic in vitro and in vivo studies. Thus, in Chapter 3 we present our efforts in developing a novel life-span extended epithelial endometriotic cell line. The cells were derived from the endometriotic tissue of a patient with endometriosis. We describe our attempts at immortalization and the characterization of this endometriotic cell line in relation to previously reported/available endometrial/endometriotic cell lines. In Chapter 4 we investigated the role of iron in modulating functional aspects of various gynecological cell lines. Although our expectation was that iron could transform normal ovarian surface epithelial cells (OSE) to a carcinoma-like phenotype, we instead discovered that ovarian cell lines containing Ras mutations (or with H-Ras overexpression) responded to iron (presented as ferric ammonium citrate (FAC)) with a reduced growth response. Further treatment with iron induced an apoptotic/necrotic death response in the Ras mutated HEY ovarian carcinoma cell line. Interestingly, we identified that iron induced autophagic activation in all ovarian cell lines investigate, although autophagy contributed only modestly to the cell death event. Furthermore, we noted that iron activated the MAPK pathway and its inhibition (via U0126, a MAPK inhibitor) allowed survival of cells. In Chapter 5, we briefly explore the role of iron in ovarian cell types growing under anchorage-independent conditions. We found that the cell lines displayed increased cleaved PARP and apoptosis when placed under these conditions. Treatment with iron led to a reduction in cleaved PARP suggesting that iron promotes cell survival in anchorage-independent conditions. Further, inhibition of autophagy via chloroquine led to increased cleaved PARP suggesting that autophagy may mediate a protective role against anchorage-independent apoptotic response In Chapter 6, we attempted to elucidate the downstream mechanism following Ras/MAPK activation in response to iron. This study identified several signaling pathways including that involved in translational control, iron metabolism, as well as mitochondrial function. The inhibition of the iron regulatory and translation control pathway did not significantly lead to rescue of iron-induced cell death of Ras mutated/overexpressed cells. However, we noted mitochondrial stress and damage including altered expression of mitochondrial markers (TOM20/TOM70, outer membrane transporters) which occurred concurrently with iron-induced cell death. The inhibition of iron import into mitochondria using a calcium uniporter channel inhibitor (Ru360) led to a marked reversal of the cell death response. Collectively, these studies suggest that increased mitochondrial permeabilization may be responsible for the observed iron-induced cell death response. Overall, the studies presented in this thesis have revealed novel responses to iron in the gynecological cell types investigated. We initially sought to understand the role of iron in precursor lesions which included the development of a novel life-span extended epithelial endometriotic cell type. Remarkably, our findings revealed a Ras driven sensitivity to excess iron. Treatment with iron caused decreased cell growth and increased cell death in cell types containing Ras mutation/overexpression. Further, we found that the mechanism leading to the iron-induced cell death events was mediated via the MAPK pathway. We then determined that the cell death response was associated with mitochondrial permeabilization. Loss of mitochondrial integrity occurred in Ras sensitive cell lines and inhibition of iron import into the mitochondria (via the calcium uniporter channel inhibitor, Ru360) led to reversal of this response. We show herein the cellular response of excess iron and its potential implication in ovarian cancer research.