Branching is a highly plastic trait, enabling plants to adapt their growth form in response to environmental stimuli. In flowering plants, shoot branching is regulated through the activity of axillary buds, which grow into branches. Several classes of plant hormones have been shown to play pivotal roles in regulating bud outgrowth. Auxin derived from the primary shoot apex and active branches inhibits bud outgrowth, whereas cytokinin promotes it. Strigolactones also inhibit bud outgrowth, by changing properties of the auxin transport network, increasing the competition between buds. This occurs by modulating access to the polar auxin transport stream (PATS) in the main stem. The PATS provides directional, long distance transport of auxin down the stem, involving basal localisation of the auxin transporter PIN-FORMED1 (PIN1). Buds need to export their auxin across the stem towards the PATS in order to activate, but since PIN1 is mainly expressed in narrow files of cells associated with the stem vasculature, PIN1 itself it is unlikely to facilitate this connectivity. This thesis re-examines the role of auxin transport in the stem, showing that, besides the PIN1-mediated PATS, other auxin transport proteins constitute a more widespread and less polar auxin transport stream, allowing auxin exchange between the PATS and surrounding tissues. Disruption of this transport stream is shown to reduce bud-bud communication and to partially rescue the increased branching observed in strigolactone mutants. Furthermore, it is shown that distinct classes of auxin transport proteins within this stream can differentially affect bud outgrowth mediated by BRANCHED1 (BRC1). BRC1 is a transcription factor proposed to determine bud activation potential. Taken together, the data presented here provide a more comprehensive understanding of the shoot auxin transport network and its role in shoot branching regulation.

Polar auxin transport provides essential directional and positional information for many developmental processes in plants. At the cellular level, it is realized by both passive diffusion and the active transport through the membrane proteins - AUX1/LAXes, PINs and ABCBs. The aim of this thesis was to characterize the role of ABCB1, ABCB4 and ABCB19 proteins in polar auxin transport using transformed tobacco BY-2 cell lines. It was shown that the plasma membrane (PM) localization of the ABCB1, 4 and 19 is not polar. The ABCB4 was also more stable on PM after the treatment with auxin influx inhibitors; making use of ABCB4-cell line helped to uncover new characteristics of markers of endocytosis - the FM- dyes. The induction of ABCB19 has led to a decrease in 3 H-NAA accumulation with characteristic auxin starvation phenotype, similar to PIN7 overexpressing cell line, that could be rescued in case of PIN7 cell line by application of the auxin efflux inhibitor NPA; however, the accumulation of auxin in ABCB19-overexpressing cell line was less sensitive to NPA and the rescue of the auxin starvation phenotype was ineffective. Importantly, unique property of the ABCB4 was demonstrated: It displayed dual, auxin-concentration-dependent auxin transport activity in Arabidopsis roots, tobacco BY-2 and yeast cells. The...

in English Plants with their sessile life-style are exposed to many stimuli from environment. They have developed mechanisms how to coordinate their growth and development, which allows them to survive sometimes in very difficult conditions. Plant hormones are one of the most important regulators of this signal transduction. Auxins, as the oldest known group of plant hormones, play important role in many physiological processes in plants. To allow perceiving the information in every single cell, auxin molecule is transported by cell-to-cell manner. Auxin molecules enter the cell by passive diffusion or by active uptake by auxin influx carriers. To reach the next cell, they are transported actively out of the cell by auxin efflux carriers. Athough active auxin transport has been studied for almost four decades, past two decades contributed to the identification and characterization of particular auxin carriers remarkably. This thesis contributes to the knowledge on the auxin efflux and influx carriers and their involvement in the processes occurring from a single cell level to the level of a whole plant. Firstly, it brings detailed description of auxin transport characteristics in Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension cells (Ath cells). Secondly, it shows that the overproduction of PIN1 auxin efflux...

Phytohormone auxin plays an important role in various aspects of plant growth and development. The necessary concentration maxima at the region of its action are achieved by auxin metabolism, passive diffusion of auxin molecules across plasma membrane and by the carrier-mediated auxin transport, as well as by modulation of these processes. In our study we used a group of compounds structurally related to major endogenous auxin indole-3-acetic acid, as well as synthetic auxins 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4- D) and naphthalene-1-acetic acid (NAA). We aimed to characterize the auxin specificity of developmentally important processes such as carrier-mediated auxin transport, and 'genomic' (transcriptional) and 'non-genomic' (transcriptional) auxin signaling. In addition to the characterization of these compounds we also hoped to get an insight into the complex regulatory mechanism of auxin-related processes and to possibly find a particular compound with distinct behavior towards particular processes. By making use of such compounds and other molecular tools we aimed to analyze the mechanism of 'non-genomic' auxin signaling, to understand the mode of action of FM (Fei Mao) styryl dyes on the dynamics of membrane- localized auxin transporters, and to study the involvement of other phytohormones...

There are several members of the subfamily of plant AGC kinases (AGCVIII) suggested to play a role in the regulation of auxin transport, protein kinases PID, WAG1, WAG2 and D6. They all have been shown to perform regulatory phosphorylation of PIN auxin efflux carriers. It is the asymmetrical subcellular localization of PIN proteins that enables the auxin molecules to be transported through a tissue in a polar manner. Regulation of their expression, localization or activity can therefore affect the quantity and directionality of auxin transport. This thesis is focused on better understanding of the PID-mediated regulation of auxin transport. The auxin accumulation as well as the localization of PIN and PID proteins has been studied using stable and transient expression of Arabidopsis thaliana PID in tobacco cell line BY-2. As shown here, the activity of PID does not enhance the activity of PINs, but still it has a positive effect on auxin efflux by increasing the amount of PIN proteins on the plasma membrane. Results presented here suggest that PID-mediated phosphorylation of PIN proteins most likely promotes their exocytosis from endosomal compartments towards the plasma membrane. Using transient co-expression of PID kinase mutated in its ATP-binding site and PIN1-RFP it was shown that functional...

The evolution of auxin homeostasis mechanisms Ph.D. thesis Roman Skokan, 2021 Abstract The streptophyte lineage consists of land plants (embryophytes) and several groups of primarily freshwater green algae called charophytes. While the phytohormone auxin is a conserved regulator of land plant development, little has been known of the possible origins of auxin response mechanisms in charophytes. We found that one of these mechanisms, the cellular auxin efflux via the PIN family of transport proteins, is most likely a deeply conserved feature in streptophytes. Additionally, we investigated the state of conservation in the green lineage (Viridiplantae) of the gene families known to be involved in auxin transport in land plants. We revealed that some families are deeply conserved outside land plants, but not others. We also helped uncover a unique radiation within the PIN family in Charophyceae. Striving to uncover the native significance of auxin transport in charophytes, we discovered a growth response to exogenously-applied auxin in Closterium, though the effort to produce stable mutant lines in the native PIN homolog is still underway. Altogether, we brought important insights into the evolution of auxin transport and response in the streptophyte lineage, though many questions still remain.

No description available.

Enquanto as raízes laterais (RL) se desenvolvem a partir da raiz primária, as raízes adventícias (RA) são geralmente formadas em órgãos da parte aérea da planta. As RA podem ser formadas como uma resposta adaptativa a estresses, como ferimentos ou alagamentos e a sua formação também é importante para a propagação vegetativa de espécies economicamente relevantes, que frequentemente dependem da propagação clonal de genótipos elite. A aplicação de hormônios pode estimular o desenvolvimento das RA (DRA), e as auxinas são consideradas os principais hormônios envolvidos nesse processo. Neste estudo, o sistema de plântulas estioladas foi usado em Arabidopsis thaliana para analisar diversos aspectos do DRA. Diferentes tipos de auxinas, naturais ou sintéticas, foram testadas e verificou-se que AIA causou um aumento no número de raízes sem afetar seu comprimento, ANA foi efetivo para o DRA, mas as raízes ficaram pequenas, e altas concentrações de 2,4-D causaram a formação de calos. Através de imunolocalização, um nível elevado de AIA foi detectado nos tecidos do hipocótilo que deram origem ao primórdio radicular. O padrão de expressão de genes potencialmente envolvidos com o enraizamento adventício foi testado por PCR em Tempo Real. O DRA foi marcado essencialmente por aumento na expressão de PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 e IAA28. A expressão dos genes induzidos foi mais estimulada por ANA, seguida de AIA. A expressão de IAA28 aumentou com o DRA, diferente do que foi observado no desenvolvimento de RL. Os receptores de auxinas TIR1/AFB e ABP1 iniciam a sinalização de auxinas na célula pelo controle da expressão gênica, proteólise seletiva e afrouxamento da parede celular. Verificou-se que TIR1 e as proteínas AFBs são importantes para o DRA, mas que estes receptores devem estar exercendo funções redundantes no processo e que ABP1 pode agir complementando a sua ação. Durante a organogênese das RA, TIR1 e AFB2 parecem exercer uma maior influência. As auxinas são transportadas de maneira polar, célula a célula e geralmente dependem de transportadores. Analisamos o DRA em diferentes mutantes deficientes no transporte de influxo e efluxo de auxinas juntamente com construções com genes repórteres, na presença ou ausência de auxina exógena. Uma função essencial foi estabelecida para AUX1 no enraizamento adventício e, embora LAX3 per se não tenha sido chave no processo, este parece agir em conjunto com AUX1. Também observamos que a formação eficiente de RA depende dos transportadores de efluxo PIN, principalmente PIN1, 3 e 7. A adequada fosforilação dos PINs pelas quinases PID, WAG1 e WAG2 e, consequentemente, a direção do transporte, foi igualmente essencial para o estabelecimento das RA. / Lateral roots (LR) develop from the primary root, whereas adventitious roots (AR) are generally formed from above-ground organs. AR can be formed as an adaptive response to stresses, like wounding or flooding, and their formation is also important for efficient vegetative propagation of economically relevant species, which often depend on clonal propagation of elite genotypes. Hormonal application can stimulate AR development (ARD) and auxins are recognized as major hormones involved in this process. Here, the etiolated seedlings system was used in Arabidopsis thaliana to study several aspects of ARD. Different auxin types, natural or synthetic, were tested and it was found that IAA caused an increase in root number without affecting root length, NAA was effective for ARD, but roots remained short and higher levels of 2,4-D caused callus formation. Through immunolocalization, a higher level of IAA was detected in hypocotyl tissues from which the root primordia differentiated. The expression pattern of genes potentially involved in adventitious rooting was tested by Real-Time PCR. ARD was essentially marked by increased expression of PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 and IAA28. The magnitude of expression of induced genes was much stimulated by NAA, followed by IAA. IAA28 expression increased with ARD, differently from what is known for lateral root development. The auxin receptors TIR1/AFB and ABP1 initiate auxin signaling in the cell through changes in gene expression, selective proteolysis and cell wall loosening. We observed that TIR1/AFB are important in ARD but might be playing redundant roles in the process, whereas ABP1 could be complementing their action. During AR organogenesis, TIR1 and AFB2 seemed to exert greater influence. Auxins are transported in a polar, cell to cell way and depend on several transporters. We analyzed ARD in different mutants affected in auxin influx and efflux transporters, coupled with reporter gene constructs, in presence or absence of exogenous auxin. An essential role was established for AUX1 in AR. Although LAX3 per se was not a key player in the process, it seemed to act in conjunction with AUX1. We also observed that efficient formation of AR depends on the PIN efflux transporters, mainly PIN1, 3 and 7. The proper phosphorylation of PINs by the kinases PID, WAG1 and WAG2, and hence the direction of auxin transport, was equally essential for AR establishment.

Enquanto as raízes laterais (RL) se desenvolvem a partir da raiz primária, as raízes adventícias (RA) são geralmente formadas em órgãos da parte aérea da planta. As RA podem ser formadas como uma resposta adaptativa a estresses, como ferimentos ou alagamentos e a sua formação também é importante para a propagação vegetativa de espécies economicamente relevantes, que frequentemente dependem da propagação clonal de genótipos elite. A aplicação de hormônios pode estimular o desenvolvimento das RA (DRA), e as auxinas são consideradas os principais hormônios envolvidos nesse processo. Neste estudo, o sistema de plântulas estioladas foi usado em Arabidopsis thaliana para analisar diversos aspectos do DRA. Diferentes tipos de auxinas, naturais ou sintéticas, foram testadas e verificou-se que AIA causou um aumento no número de raízes sem afetar seu comprimento, ANA foi efetivo para o DRA, mas as raízes ficaram pequenas, e altas concentrações de 2,4-D causaram a formação de calos. Através de imunolocalização, um nível elevado de AIA foi detectado nos tecidos do hipocótilo que deram origem ao primórdio radicular. O padrão de expressão de genes potencialmente envolvidos com o enraizamento adventício foi testado por PCR em Tempo Real. O DRA foi marcado essencialmente por aumento na expressão de PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 e IAA28. A expressão dos genes induzidos foi mais estimulada por ANA, seguida de AIA. A expressão de IAA28 aumentou com o DRA, diferente do que foi observado no desenvolvimento de RL. Os receptores de auxinas TIR1/AFB e ABP1 iniciam a sinalização de auxinas na célula pelo controle da expressão gênica, proteólise seletiva e afrouxamento da parede celular. Verificou-se que TIR1 e as proteínas AFBs são importantes para o DRA, mas que estes receptores devem estar exercendo funções redundantes no processo e que ABP1 pode agir complementando a sua ação. Durante a organogênese das RA, TIR1 e AFB2 parecem exercer uma maior influência. As auxinas são transportadas de maneira polar, célula a célula e geralmente dependem de transportadores. Analisamos o DRA em diferentes mutantes deficientes no transporte de influxo e efluxo de auxinas juntamente com construções com genes repórteres, na presença ou ausência de auxina exógena. Uma função essencial foi estabelecida para AUX1 no enraizamento adventício e, embora LAX3 per se não tenha sido chave no processo, este parece agir em conjunto com AUX1. Também observamos que a formação eficiente de RA depende dos transportadores de efluxo PIN, principalmente PIN1, 3 e 7. A adequada fosforilação dos PINs pelas quinases PID, WAG1 e WAG2 e, consequentemente, a direção do transporte, foi igualmente essencial para o estabelecimento das RA. / Lateral roots (LR) develop from the primary root, whereas adventitious roots (AR) are generally formed from above-ground organs. AR can be formed as an adaptive response to stresses, like wounding or flooding, and their formation is also important for efficient vegetative propagation of economically relevant species, which often depend on clonal propagation of elite genotypes. Hormonal application can stimulate AR development (ARD) and auxins are recognized as major hormones involved in this process. Here, the etiolated seedlings system was used in Arabidopsis thaliana to study several aspects of ARD. Different auxin types, natural or synthetic, were tested and it was found that IAA caused an increase in root number without affecting root length, NAA was effective for ARD, but roots remained short and higher levels of 2,4-D caused callus formation. Through immunolocalization, a higher level of IAA was detected in hypocotyl tissues from which the root primordia differentiated. The expression pattern of genes potentially involved in adventitious rooting was tested by Real-Time PCR. ARD was essentially marked by increased expression of PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 and IAA28. The magnitude of expression of induced genes was much stimulated by NAA, followed by IAA. IAA28 expression increased with ARD, differently from what is known for lateral root development. The auxin receptors TIR1/AFB and ABP1 initiate auxin signaling in the cell through changes in gene expression, selective proteolysis and cell wall loosening. We observed that TIR1/AFB are important in ARD but might be playing redundant roles in the process, whereas ABP1 could be complementing their action. During AR organogenesis, TIR1 and AFB2 seemed to exert greater influence. Auxins are transported in a polar, cell to cell way and depend on several transporters. We analyzed ARD in different mutants affected in auxin influx and efflux transporters, coupled with reporter gene constructs, in presence or absence of exogenous auxin. An essential role was established for AUX1 in AR. Although LAX3 per se was not a key player in the process, it seemed to act in conjunction with AUX1. We also observed that efficient formation of AR depends on the PIN efflux transporters, mainly PIN1, 3 and 7. The proper phosphorylation of PINs by the kinases PID, WAG1 and WAG2, and hence the direction of auxin transport, was equally essential for AR establishment.

Enquanto as raízes laterais (RL) se desenvolvem a partir da raiz primária, as raízes adventícias (RA) são geralmente formadas em órgãos da parte aérea da planta. As RA podem ser formadas como uma resposta adaptativa a estresses, como ferimentos ou alagamentos e a sua formação também é importante para a propagação vegetativa de espécies economicamente relevantes, que frequentemente dependem da propagação clonal de genótipos elite. A aplicação de hormônios pode estimular o desenvolvimento das RA (DRA), e as auxinas são consideradas os principais hormônios envolvidos nesse processo. Neste estudo, o sistema de plântulas estioladas foi usado em Arabidopsis thaliana para analisar diversos aspectos do DRA. Diferentes tipos de auxinas, naturais ou sintéticas, foram testadas e verificou-se que AIA causou um aumento no número de raízes sem afetar seu comprimento, ANA foi efetivo para o DRA, mas as raízes ficaram pequenas, e altas concentrações de 2,4-D causaram a formação de calos. Através de imunolocalização, um nível elevado de AIA foi detectado nos tecidos do hipocótilo que deram origem ao primórdio radicular. O padrão de expressão de genes potencialmente envolvidos com o enraizamento adventício foi testado por PCR em Tempo Real. O DRA foi marcado essencialmente por aumento na expressão de PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 e IAA28. A expressão dos genes induzidos foi mais estimulada por ANA, seguida de AIA. A expressão de IAA28 aumentou com o DRA, diferente do que foi observado no desenvolvimento de RL. Os receptores de auxinas TIR1/AFB e ABP1 iniciam a sinalização de auxinas na célula pelo controle da expressão gênica, proteólise seletiva e afrouxamento da parede celular. Verificou-se que TIR1 e as proteínas AFBs são importantes para o DRA, mas que estes receptores devem estar exercendo funções redundantes no processo e que ABP1 pode agir complementando a sua ação. Durante a organogênese das RA, TIR1 e AFB2 parecem exercer uma maior influência. As auxinas são transportadas de maneira polar, célula a célula e geralmente dependem de transportadores. Analisamos o DRA em diferentes mutantes deficientes no transporte de influxo e efluxo de auxinas juntamente com construções com genes repórteres, na presença ou ausência de auxina exógena. Uma função essencial foi estabelecida para AUX1 no enraizamento adventício e, embora LAX3 per se não tenha sido chave no processo, este parece agir em conjunto com AUX1. Também observamos que a formação eficiente de RA depende dos transportadores de efluxo PIN, principalmente PIN1, 3 e 7. A adequada fosforilação dos PINs pelas quinases PID, WAG1 e WAG2 e, consequentemente, a direção do transporte, foi igualmente essencial para o estabelecimento das RA. / Lateral roots (LR) develop from the primary root, whereas adventitious roots (AR) are generally formed from above-ground organs. AR can be formed as an adaptive response to stresses, like wounding or flooding, and their formation is also important for efficient vegetative propagation of economically relevant species, which often depend on clonal propagation of elite genotypes. Hormonal application can stimulate AR development (ARD) and auxins are recognized as major hormones involved in this process. Here, the etiolated seedlings system was used in Arabidopsis thaliana to study several aspects of ARD. Different auxin types, natural or synthetic, were tested and it was found that IAA caused an increase in root number without affecting root length, NAA was effective for ARD, but roots remained short and higher levels of 2,4-D caused callus formation. Through immunolocalization, a higher level of IAA was detected in hypocotyl tissues from which the root primordia differentiated. The expression pattern of genes potentially involved in adventitious rooting was tested by Real-Time PCR. ARD was essentially marked by increased expression of PIN1, SUR2, GH3.3, GH3.6, ARF8 and IAA28. The magnitude of expression of induced genes was much stimulated by NAA, followed by IAA. IAA28 expression increased with ARD, differently from what is known for lateral root development. The auxin receptors TIR1/AFB and ABP1 initiate auxin signaling in the cell through changes in gene expression, selective proteolysis and cell wall loosening. We observed that TIR1/AFB are important in ARD but might be playing redundant roles in the process, whereas ABP1 could be complementing their action. During AR organogenesis, TIR1 and AFB2 seemed to exert greater influence. Auxins are transported in a polar, cell to cell way and depend on several transporters. We analyzed ARD in different mutants affected in auxin influx and efflux transporters, coupled with reporter gene constructs, in presence or absence of exogenous auxin. An essential role was established for AUX1 in AR. Although LAX3 per se was not a key player in the process, it seemed to act in conjunction with AUX1. We also observed that efficient formation of AR depends on the PIN efflux transporters, mainly PIN1, 3 and 7. The proper phosphorylation of PINs by the kinases PID, WAG1 and WAG2, and hence the direction of auxin transport, was equally essential for AR establishment.