No description available.

Introdução: Mecanismos epigenéticos, como a metilação de DNA, desempenham um papel importante na neurobiologia da depressão. Enquanto o estresse aumenta a metilação de DNA e reduz a expressão de genes envolvidos na plasticidade neuronial, inibidores de DNA metiltransferases (DNMTi), enzimas que catalisam a metilação de DNA, aumentam rapidamente a expressão gênica e induzem efeitos tipo-antidepressivos em modelos animais. Considerando, ainda, que antidepressivos convencionais podem interferir com mecanismos epigenéticos, este trabalho testou a hipótese de que drogas DNMTi induzem efeito tipo-antidepressivo agudo e sustentado em modelos animais. Além disso, avaliamos se o efeito de antidepressivos convencionais e de DNMTis sobre os níveis de mRNA e de metilação de DNA em diferentes genes associados a depressão e regulados por mecanismos epigenéticos (BDNF, TrkB, 5-HT1A, NMDA e AMPA) em estruturas encefálicas (hipocampo dorsal, ventral e córtex pré-frontal) de animais submetidos a modelo animal de depressão. Métodos: Para tanto, ratos Wistar foram submetidos ao modelo do desamparo aprenddo [learned helplessness, LH, pré-teste (PT), 40 choques inescapáveis nas patas]. Os animais receberam injeções sistêmicas de DNMTi (5-AzaD ou RG108), antidepressivos (imipramina ou fluoxetina), ou veículo, por 1 ou 7 dias, e foram submetidos a sessão teste do desamparo aprendido (T, 30 choques escapáveis) no último dia. Adicionalmente, um grupo independente foi submetido ao mesmo protocolo experimental e sacrificados 1 h após a última injeção. As estruturas encefálicas foram dissecadas para posterior análise molecular [imunoprecipitação de DNA metilado (meDIP) e quantificação de RNAm por qRT-PCR). Resultados: O estresse dos choques nas patas aumentou o número de falhas no teste. O tratamento com DNMTi agudamente, assim como com antidepressivos (tratamento repetido), foi capaz de atenuar essas alterações comportamentais, efeito considerado tipo-antidepressivo nesse modelo. Ainda, o estresse aumentou a metilação de DNA e reduziu os níveis de RNAm para BDNF e TrkB, enquanto que o tratamento com RG108 atenuou essas alterações moleculares no córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Conclusão: Os presentes resultados indicam que DNMTi, diferente de antidepressivos convencionais, são capazes de induzir rápido e sustentado efeito tipo-antidepressivo. Além disso, BDNF e TrkB parecem ser importantes para a resposta comportamental induzida pela inibição de DNMTs no córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao LH. / Introduction: Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, are thought to play an important role in the neurobiology of depression. While stress increases DNA methylation and decreases the expression of genes involved in neuronal plasticity, DNA methyltransferases inhibitors (DNMTi) increases gene expression and induces antidepressant-like effects in animal models. Considering that conventional antidepressants could interfere with epigenetic mechanisms, this work tested the hypothesis that acute treatment with DNMTi would induce acute and long-lasting antidepressant-like effects. Furthermore, we evaluated whether the stress could induce changes in the mRNA and DNA methylation levels in different genes involved with depression and regulated by epigenetic mechanisms (BDNF, TrkB, 5-HT1A, NMDA and AMPA) in different brain structures [dorsal hippocampus, ventral hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC)] and whether such changes would be attenuated by systemic treatment with DNMTi (acutely) and antidepressants (chronically). Methods: Male Wistar rats were submitted to the learned helplessness model (LH; pretest session, 40 inescapable foot shocks). The animals received systemic injection the DNMTi (5-AzaD or RG108), antidepressants (imipramine or fluoxetine) or vehicle for one or seven days and were submitted to the LH test (30 escapable foot shocks) in the last day. Additionally, one independent group were submitted to the same experimental protocol and sacrificed one hour after last injection for collection of brain samples to further molecular analyses (methylated DNA immunopreciptation and mRNA levels by qRT-PCR). Results: Exposure to inescapable footshocks increased the number of escape failures in the test. Treatment with DNMTi (acute), as well as with antidepressants (repeated treatment), attenuated stress-induced behavioral responses, an antidepressant-like effect in this model. Moroever, stress increased DNA methylation and decreased RNAm levels of BDNF and TrkB, while treatment with RG108 attenuated molecular changes induced by stress in rat PFC. Conclusion: The present results indicate that DNMTi, different from conventional antidepressants, are able to induce rapid and sustained antidepressant-like effects. In addition, BDNF and TrkB appear to be important for behavioral response induced by inhibition of DNMTs in the rat PFC submitted to the LH.

Introdução: Mecanismos epigenéticos, como a metilação de DNA, desempenham um papel importante na neurobiologia da depressão. Enquanto o estresse aumenta a metilação de DNA e reduz a expressão de genes envolvidos na plasticidade neuronial, inibidores de DNA metiltransferases (DNMTi), enzimas que catalisam a metilação de DNA, aumentam rapidamente a expressão gênica e induzem efeitos tipo-antidepressivos em modelos animais. Considerando, ainda, que antidepressivos convencionais podem interferir com mecanismos epigenéticos, este trabalho testou a hipótese de que drogas DNMTi induzem efeito tipo-antidepressivo agudo e sustentado em modelos animais. Além disso, avaliamos se o efeito de antidepressivos convencionais e de DNMTis sobre os níveis de mRNA e de metilação de DNA em diferentes genes associados a depressão e regulados por mecanismos epigenéticos (BDNF, TrkB, 5-HT1A, NMDA e AMPA) em estruturas encefálicas (hipocampo dorsal, ventral e córtex pré-frontal) de animais submetidos a modelo animal de depressão. Métodos: Para tanto, ratos Wistar foram submetidos ao modelo do desamparo aprenddo [learned helplessness, LH, pré-teste (PT), 40 choques inescapáveis nas patas]. Os animais receberam injeções sistêmicas de DNMTi (5-AzaD ou RG108), antidepressivos (imipramina ou fluoxetina), ou veículo, por 1 ou 7 dias, e foram submetidos a sessão teste do desamparo aprendido (T, 30 choques escapáveis) no último dia. Adicionalmente, um grupo independente foi submetido ao mesmo protocolo experimental e sacrificados 1 h após a última injeção. As estruturas encefálicas foram dissecadas para posterior análise molecular [imunoprecipitação de DNA metilado (meDIP) e quantificação de RNAm por qRT-PCR). Resultados: O estresse dos choques nas patas aumentou o número de falhas no teste. O tratamento com DNMTi agudamente, assim como com antidepressivos (tratamento repetido), foi capaz de atenuar essas alterações comportamentais, efeito considerado tipo-antidepressivo nesse modelo. Ainda, o estresse aumentou a metilação de DNA e reduziu os níveis de RNAm para BDNF e TrkB, enquanto que o tratamento com RG108 atenuou essas alterações moleculares no córtex pré-frontal de ratos. Conclusão: Os presentes resultados indicam que DNMTi, diferente de antidepressivos convencionais, são capazes de induzir rápido e sustentado efeito tipo-antidepressivo. Além disso, BDNF e TrkB parecem ser importantes para a resposta comportamental induzida pela inibição de DNMTs no córtex pré-frontal de ratos submetidos ao LH. / Introduction: Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation, are thought to play an important role in the neurobiology of depression. While stress increases DNA methylation and decreases the expression of genes involved in neuronal plasticity, DNA methyltransferases inhibitors (DNMTi) increases gene expression and induces antidepressant-like effects in animal models. Considering that conventional antidepressants could interfere with epigenetic mechanisms, this work tested the hypothesis that acute treatment with DNMTi would induce acute and long-lasting antidepressant-like effects. Furthermore, we evaluated whether the stress could induce changes in the mRNA and DNA methylation levels in different genes involved with depression and regulated by epigenetic mechanisms (BDNF, TrkB, 5-HT1A, NMDA and AMPA) in different brain structures [dorsal hippocampus, ventral hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (PFC)] and whether such changes would be attenuated by systemic treatment with DNMTi (acutely) and antidepressants (chronically). Methods: Male Wistar rats were submitted to the learned helplessness model (LH; pretest session, 40 inescapable foot shocks). The animals received systemic injection the DNMTi (5-AzaD or RG108), antidepressants (imipramine or fluoxetine) or vehicle for one or seven days and were submitted to the LH test (30 escapable foot shocks) in the last day. Additionally, one independent group were submitted to the same experimental protocol and sacrificed one hour after last injection for collection of brain samples to further molecular analyses (methylated DNA immunopreciptation and mRNA levels by qRT-PCR). Results: Exposure to inescapable footshocks increased the number of escape failures in the test. Treatment with DNMTi (acute), as well as with antidepressants (repeated treatment), attenuated stress-induced behavioral responses, an antidepressant-like effect in this model. Moroever, stress increased DNA methylation and decreased RNAm levels of BDNF and TrkB, while treatment with RG108 attenuated molecular changes induced by stress in rat PFC. Conclusion: The present results indicate that DNMTi, different from conventional antidepressants, are able to induce rapid and sustained antidepressant-like effects. In addition, BDNF and TrkB appear to be important for behavioral response induced by inhibition of DNMTs in the rat PFC submitted to the LH.

No description available.

Perhaps one of the greatest paradoxes in the history of modern Muslim India is embodied in the respective personalities and careers of Azad and Jinnah--a paradox in themselves as well as in opposition to each other. Muhammad 'Ali Jinnah, a "lay" person by descent, by training and by temperament chose to espouse the cause of religious communalism and, in spite of the contradictions between his personality and his career, he was audacious enough to proclaim his ideal loud and clear. On the other hand, Abul Kalam Azad, who was a religious person by birth, by education and by social classification, decided upon secularism as his goal but was not courageous enough to call a spade a spade. He could never get rid of religion as the final authority in his own arguments for secularism and he could never get the 'ulama, the personifications of religious authority, to olear out of politics once he had dragged them in. This thesis is an attempt on my part to assess the role of religion in, and its influence on, Indian Muslim politics in the present century, and to see how the earliest efforts at making Indian Muslims take a more secularist attitude towards politics met with failure.

As a culturally distinctive region, Asia was chosen as the sample for this study. This empirical study investigated what the major trends of democratisation were in Asia between 1981 and 2005: why some countries became democratic while other countries failed to follow suit during that period. The main research hypothesis was: “That is it was mainly economic development that drove democratisation in Asia between 1981 and 2005”. Although some studies have studied the impact of economic development on democratisation in Asia, their findings have been inconclusive and focuses sometimes different. [To investigate the research hypothesis, 24 Asian countries were selected…measurement tools used etc…] For this research work, statistical and case study methods were applied. The data used in the analyses were collected from established data sources e.g. Freedom House (Freedom in the World, n.d.) and United Nations Statistics Division (UN Stat, n.d.). Repeated Measures in Linear Mixed Modeling (LMM) were used to analyse the quantitative data. Three case studies supplemented the findings of statistical analyses. Historical information and institutional and legal facts were also used in the case studies. This study found that increases in the level of economic development along with its equitable distribution in society and positive roles of political actors increase the level of democratisation in Asia. Some pro-democratic political and social institutions, such as tradition of parliamentarianism, and international organisations, for example Bretton wood institutions, also led to democratisation. A low extent of national political divide was found to result in a considerably high level of democratisation in a country where confrontation between major political forces is the main feature of politics. This study also found that a partial democracy with Asian values, economic legitimacy, a lack of corruption and a “systematic control” over opposition politicians can survive, and is not prone to higher level of democratisation. The Taiwan case revealed that, amongst other factors, the role of political actors and economic equity along with economic development is also vital for democratisation. The Singapore case explained how a “hybrid regime” in a rich country outsmarts democratisation. The study of Bangladesh provides an idea about other elements, e.g. lower level of political confrontation, that push for higher levels of democratisation.