L’apoptose, mort cellulaire observée suite à l’activation des caspases effectrices, est un moyen de défense contre les pathogènes, en particulier les virus. Le virus de la vaccine (VACV) est un virus contenant un grand génome à ADN codant pour environ 200 protéines, dont plusieurs inhibent l’apoptose. Cette apparente redondance fonctionnelle complique l’étude des protéines antiapoptotiques du virus dans un contexte d’infection virale. Dans ce travail, nous comparerons les propriétés antiapoptotiques des protéines B13, F1, GAAP et N1 de VACV. Cette comparaison sera établie dans un premier temps en dehors de toute infection virale. En utilisant des vecteurs lentiviraux, nous avons obtenu des lignées cellulaires stables (U2-OS) exprimant ces protéines en isolation. Nous avons alors pu tester les capacités antiapoptotiques de ces protéines en réponse à des stimuli provoquant l’apoptose extrinsèque et intrinsèque. Les résultats ont montré que B13 était la plus puissante molécule inhibitrice de l’apoptose intrinsèque et qu’elle était la seule à inhiber l’apoptose extrinsèque. Ensuite nous avons tiré avantage d’un virus de la vaccine déficient (vv811) qui ne possède aucune de ces protéines antiapoptotiques, capable à lui seul d’induire l’apoptose, en l’absence de toute autre stimulus. En infectant nos lignées cellulaires exprimant les molécules in trans avec vv811, nous avons pu montrer que B13 inhibait cette apoptose induite par le virus beaucoup plus efficacement que F1. GAAP et N1 dans ce contexte n’ont pas démontré de propriétés antiapoptotiques. Enfin, nous avons construit par mutagénèse des virus vv811 recombinants exprimant les molécules étudiées in cis. Suite à l’infection par ces virus de cellules U2-OS et Hela, B13, de nouveau, et F1 ont montré des capacités d’inhibition importantes de l’apoptose. L’action de GAAP s’est révélée dépendante du type cellulaire et N1 n’a pas pu inhiber l’apoptose induite par ce virus déficient dans aucune des cellules testées. En utilisant ces différentes approches, nous avons pu nous affranchir des problèmes de redondance et comparer 4 molécules antiapoptotiques du virus de la vaccine, y compris dans un contexte d’infection virale. Les résultats ont confirmé que toutes les protéines étudiées possédaient des propriétés antiapoptiques et ont clairement montré que B13 était la plus puissante / Apoptosis, which occurs following activation of effector caspases, can restrict the replication of intracellular pathogens, especially viruses. Vaccinia virus (VACV) is a large dsDNA virus encoding approximately 200 proteins, several of which inhibit apoptosis. This redundancy of viral anti-apoptotic proteins complicates the study of these proteins in the context of viral infection. Here a comparative study of the anti-apoptotic proteins B13, F1, GAAP and N1 with and without virus infection is presented. Firstly, using lentiviral constructs, we generated transduced cell lines expressing the anti-apoptotic proteins in isolation and we analysed their ability to protect against extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis induced by different drugs. In that context B13 was the most potent inhibitor of intrinsic apoptosis and the only protein to inhibit both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis. We then used a deficient VACV strain, vv811, that lacks the genes coding for the four anti-apoptotic proteins. Infection with vv811 can induce apoptosis without the need for any other stimulus. After vv811 infection of cell lines expressing the anti-apoptotic proteins in trans, B13 and to a lesser extent F1, inhibited apoptosis. Finally, we introduced each gene separately into vv811 by genetic recombination. Using these recombinant viruses to induce apoptosis, B13 and F1 were very potent inhibitors. The protection conferred by GAAP was cell type dependant and N1 failed to protect any of the tested cells from the virus induced apoptosis. Using these different approaches, we have been able to overcome the redundancy issue to compare 4 anti-apoptotic proteins from VACV, including in the context of viral infection. The results illustrate that vv811 is a useful tool to determine the role of VACV anti-apoptotic proteins during infection and that whilst all of these proteins have some anti-apoptotic activity, B13 is most potent.

A proteína recombinante B13 contém repetições seriadas de 12 aminoácidos e corresponde a uma região do antígeno imunodominante de 140-116 KDa encontrado na superfície da forma tripomastigota de T. cruzi (cepa Y). A proteína B13 apresenta elevada sensibilidade e especificidade no diagnóstico sorológico da Doença de Chagas. A análise da distribuição de subclasses de IgG anti-B13 em soros de pacientes chagásicos cardiopatas (SCC) e de assintomáticos (SCI) mostrou o mesmo padrão: IgG1»IgG3>IgG2>IgG4. No entanto, a média de reatividade a B13 foi maior no grupo SCC do que no grupo SCI. Dados anteriores de nosso grupo indicam que a resposta de célula Ta B13 é restrita ao grupo HLA de classe II (HLA- DQA1*0501, DRB1*0101 and DRB5*0101 - denominado grupo HLA+). Por outro lado, dados da literatura sugerem que antígenos repetitivos de protozoários são antígenos T-independentes. Analisamos por ELISA a reatividade a B13 em soros de pacientes HLA+ e HLA- (portadores de outros alelos). Os resultados obtidos indicam que a média de reatividade a B13 é semelhante nos dois grupos de soros, sugerindo que no grupo HLA- a resposta de anticorpos anti-B13 pode ser T-independente. Utilizando peptídeos sintéticos derivados da seqüência de B13 concluímos que o epitopo imunodominante está contido na seqüência FGQAAAGDK. Visando mapear o epitopo responsável pela resposta anti-B13 e analisar uma possível correlação entre estrutura e atividade antigênica, três peptídeos sintéticos contendo o centro do epitopo AAAGDK (pB13 - GDKPSLFGQAAAGDKPSPLF; S4 -FGQAAAGDK e S5 -QAAAGDKPS) foram analisados quanto à sua capacidade de inibir a reatividade de soros de chagásicos à proteína recombinante B13. Os resultados mostram haver uma hierarquia na atividade antigênica inibitória dos peptídeos (pB13>S4>S5), que poderia estar relacionada com a capacidade distinta dos peptídeos em assumir uma estrutura secundária ordenada. As propriedades estruturais dos peptídeos foram analisadas por DC e RNM e indicam que os peptídeos apresentam uma hierarquia pB13>S4>S5 quanto à capacidade de adquirir uma conformação em hélice. Dados anteriores indicam que soros de pacientes chagásicos da América Central e do Sul apresentam diferenças na mediana de reatividade à proteína B13 em testes de ELISA: por ex. Argentina MD=1.79; Brasil MD=1.51; Honduras MD=0.91. Investigamos alguns parâmetros sorológicos que pudessem explicar as diferenças observadas. Soros de 224 indivíduos chagásicos da Argentina, Brasil, Bolívia, Colômbia, El Salvador, Honduras e Venezuela foram analisados com relação à subclasse de IgG responsável pelo reconhecimento de B13. Os dados mostram igual distribuição das subclasses com a seguinte ordem decrescente de reatividade: IgG1»IgG3>IgG2>IgG4. Também concluímos que os soros em questão reconhecem o mesmo epitopo imunodominante da proteína B13. Uma alternativa para explicar variações na resposta imune do hospedeiro a B13 seria a heterogeneidade molecular do antígeno correspondente a B13 nas cepas de T. cruzi. Primeiramente investigamos a massa molecular deste antígeno em sete cepas do parasita derivadas de diferentes regiões geográficas em ensaios de Western blot com soro anti-proteína recombinante B13. Observamos que a massa molecular deste antígeno varia de 100 a 190 KDa e que em várias cepas o soro anti-B13 reage com dois polipeptídeos. Com base nestes resultados investigamos a organização deste gene de cópia única no genoma das cepas. Concluímos que este gene está localizado em uma banda cromossômica única que apresenta variação de tamanho entre as cepas (1,25 a 0,9 Mpb). Análise por Southern blot indicou que o gene B13 apresenta arranjo diferente no genoma das cepas. Investigamos também o tamanho da região que contém as repetições seriadas no gene B13. A partir de dados da seqüência deste gene da cepa CA-1 desenhamos um par de oligonucleotídeos que flanqueiam esta região. DNA genômico de 23 cepas foi submetido a PCR com este par de iniciadores, detectando-se produtos de amplificações com tamanho variando de 2,1 a 3,5 Kb em 11 cepas. Após seqüenciamento da região a 3\' das repetições seriadas do gene B13 da cepa Y, foi desenhado um segundo par de oligonucleotídeos iniciadores. Amplificação foi obtida em quatro cepas adicionais. Em 73% das cepas houve amplificação de um único fragmento enquanto nas demais dois produtos foram obtidos. Os dois produtos podem corresponder a diferenças no tamanho da região das repetições dos dois alelos do gene B13. Também analisamos a seqüência de nucleotídeos de 83 unidades repetitivas em cinco cepas de T. cruzi. Concluiu-se que o epitopo imunodominante (FGQAAAGDK) é altamente conservado nas unidades das cepas embora algumas variações de aminoácidos foram observadas em algumas unidades. Tomados em conjunto os dados indicam haver polimorfismo do gene de B13 em cepas de T. cruzi quanto a: (a) grande variação no número de unidades repetitivas (de 58 a 97 unidades); (b) baixa variação na seqüência que flanqueia a região repetitiva; (c) certa variação na seqüência codificadora de aminoácidos da região imunodominante. Como conseqüência destas observações, sugere-se que as diferenças observadas no número de unidades repetitivas e na estrutura de algumas destas repetições no antígeno B13 de cepas de T. cruzi podem ter implicações na indução da resposta humoral e celular do hospedeiro e poderiam explicar, em conjunto com diferenças genéticas do indivíduo, a variação da resposta imune a B13 observada em soros de pacientes chagásicos. Que seja de nosso conhecimento este é o primeiro estudo que analisa a estrutura geral de um gene de antígeno que apresenta domínios repetitivos em cepas de T. cruzi. / The recombinant protein B13 contains 12 amino acid tandem repeats and corresponds to the immunodominant region of the 140/116 KDa surface antigen of T. cruzi trypomastigotes of the Y strain. B13 protein shows high sensitivity and specificity in the serological diagnosis of Chagas disease. The analysis of anti-B13 IgG subclass distribution in sera of chronic chagas disease cardiopathy patients (CCC) and asymptomatic patients (ASY) showed the same pattern: IgG1»IgG3>IgG2>IgG4. However, the mean of reactivity to B13 was higher in the CCC group as compared with ASY. Previous data from our laboratory indicate that T cell response to B13 protein is MHC class II-restricted (HLADQA1*0501, DRB1*0101 and DRB5*0101 - named as group HLA+). On the other hand, data from the literature suggest that repetitive antigens from protozoa are T-independent antigens. Reactivity to B13 was analyzed by ELISA in sera of patients HLA+ and HLA-(presenting the other alleles). Similar mean ODs values were obtained for the two groups of sera suggesting that at least in the HLA- group the humoral response to B13 could be T-independent. Competitive ELISA employing synthetic peptides derived from B13 sequence allowed concluding that the immunodominant epitope is included in the FGQAAAGDK sequence. To define the minimum epitope responsible for the anti-B13 response and to analyze a possible correlation between structural features and antigenic activity three synthetic peptides bearing the core (AAAGDK) of the immunodominant epitope (pB13 -GDKPSLFGQAAAGDKPSPLF; S4 -FGQAAAGDK e S5 -QAAAGDKPS) were assayed regarding their ability to inhibit chagasic sera reactivity to B13. A hierarchy in the inhibitory antigenic activity was observed (pB13>S4>S5), that could reflect the distinct capacity of the polypeptides to assume an ordered secondary structure. This feature was investigated by CD and NMR. Data are suggestive that the three peptides have the some hierarchy regarding their capacity to acquire a helical conformation (pB13>S4>S5). Previous analyses of chagasic sera from nine countries of Central and South America showed variations in the mean O.D. values of B13-ELISA according to the country (eg Argentina, MD=1.79; Brazil, MD=1.51; Honduras, MD=0.91). We investigated some serological parameters that could explain the observed variation. 224 chagasic sera from Argentina, Brazil, Bolívia, Colombia, EI Salvador, Honduras and Venezuela were investigated concerning the IgG subclass reactive to B13. Data indicate that all the sera displayed the some subclass distribution: IgG1»IgG3>IgG2>IgG4. It was also concluded that the some immunodominant epitope of B13 protein was recognized by the sera. As an alternative to explain variations in the host immune response to B13 we investigated the molecular heterogeneity of the native B13 antigen in different T. cruzi strains. Firstly we analyzed the molecular mass of this antigen in seven stocks derived from different hosts and geographic regions. Western blot experiments employing anti-recombinant protein B13 serum showed variations in the molecular mass of B13 antigen ranging from 100 to 190 KDa. In most of the stocks, anti-B13 serum reacted with two polypeptides. Based on these results we investigated the organization of the B13 single copy gene in the genome of the strains. It was concluded that the gene is localized in a single chromosomal band presenting size variation among the strains (1,25 to 0,9 Mbp). Southern blot analysis indicated that B13 gene has different genomic arrangement. We have also investigated the size of the region that contains the tandem repeats. Based on the sequence of a B13-homologous gene of the CA-1 strain we designed a pair of oligonucleotide primers flanking the repetitive region. Genomic DNA of 23 parasite strains was submitted to PCR with these primers. Amplification products ranging from 2.1 to 3.5 Kb were observed in 11 stocks. After sequencing of a region located at the 3\' end of the repetitive portion of B13 gene of the Y strain, a second pair of primers was designed. PCR amplification was obtained in four additional strains. Most of stocks (73%) originated only one amplified band while two products were detected in the remaining strains. The two products could derive from the independent amplification of the repetitive regions of the two alleles of B13 gene. We have also analyzed the nucleotide sequence of 83 repetitive units of f ive T. cruzi strains. It is concluded that the immunodominant epitope (FGQAAAGDK) is highly conserved among the units and the various parasite strains, although few amino acid variations were detected in some units. Taken together these data indicate polymorphism of B13 gene among T. cruzi strains regarding: (a) high degree of heterogeneity in the number of repetitive units (it is estimated that this number varies form 58 to 97 units); (b) discrete sequence variation upstream and downstream of the repetitive region; (c) minor variations in the codified amino acid of some repetitive units. Differences in the number of repetitive immunodominant units and in the structure of some of these repeats may have implications on the induction of humoral and cellular responses of the host to B13 antigen. These parameters in conjunction with genetic characteristics of the individuais could explain the variation of reactivity to B13 observed in sera of chagasic patients. To our knowledge this is the first report that describes the general structure of an antigen gene bearing repetitive domains in T. cruzi strains.

The Nationalökonomische Gesellschaft (Austrian Economic Association, NOeG) provides a prominent example of the Viennese economic circles that more than academic economics dominated scientific discourse in the interwar years. For the first time this paper gives a thorough account of its history, from its foundation 1918 until the demise of its long-time president, Hans Mayer, 1955, based on official documents and archival material. The topics treated include its predecessor and rival, the Gesellschaft österreichischer Volkswirte, the foundation 1918 soon to be followed by years of inactivity, the relaunch by Mayer and Mises, the survival under the NS-regime and the expulsion of its Jewish members, and the slow restoration after 1945. In particular, an attempt is made to provide a list of the papers presented to the NOeG, as complete as possible, for the period 1918-1938. (author's abstract) / Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

The Nationalökonomische Gesellschaft (NOeG) was founded in June 1918 by a group of young scholars, mostly based in Vienna, as a forum for theoretical debate. Despite the prominent economists involved (e.g. Schumpeter, Mises, Mayer, Spann, Amonn) its activities soon petered out. The relaunch of the NOeG in 1927 originated from the necessity of the two strands of the Austrian school, led by Mayer and Mises, to find some tolerable arrangement; Spann and economists outside the University of Vienna were excluded. Around 1930 the NOeG and Vienna in general proved an attraction for many well-known economists from abroad, and many of the papers presented were printed and cited in first-rate journals. Yet with the emigration of many Austrian economists during the 1930s the NOeG mirrored the general decline of academic economics in Austria and the number and quality of the papers presented decreased. After the Anschluss 1938 the NOeG and its president Mayer were quick in dismissing its Jewish members and in the following adhered to a strategy of inconspicuous adaptation; its formal existence did not lead to any substantial activities. The post-war period was characterized by the restoration of the situation before 1938, with Mayer's continued presence at the university as well as at the NOeG a case in point. In the end, it led Austrian academic economics into a state of international isolation and "provincialization" much lamented by the émigré economists of the Austrian school.