El Niño is a climatic event that can have large-scale impacts on global rainfall patterns, causing severe droughts in some regions and floods in others. The frequency of strong El Niño events is expected to increase in the future under scenarios of climate change. Despite this, the consequences of El Niño-induced droughts for ecological interactions are poorly understood. Here I applied DNA barcoding to assess the diets of frugivorous and insectivorous bats in the dry forest and rainforest of Costa Rica during one of the strongest El Niño on record (2015) and compare it with a non-El Niño year. My data indicated that the mutualistic network structure observed during the El Niño event was similar in both dry forest and rainforest, despite these habitats experiencing droughts and flooding, respectively. However, during the non-El Niño wet season in the dry forest, niche overlap was higher than the El Niño event. Antagonistic networks showed little change in the overall size and diversity of modules of interaction, but there were significant changes in modularity and the position of the nodes between the networks constructed during the El Niño year versus the normal year in dry forest. Additionally, I evaluated the relationship between wing morphology and diet specialization and differentiation of individuals. I observed that individuals of a common insectivorous bat species, Pteronotus mesoamericanus, showed differences in diet that correlated with wing morphology. To conclude, El Niño was associated with similar changes in the organisation of mutualistic networks in both dry and wet forests, as well as with modifications at the node level in antagonistic networks of dry forest. Such changes could have profound impacts for network resilience and the maintenance of interactions and species at both sites over time.

The Bechstein’s bat, Myotis bechsteinii, is known as one of Britain’s most elusive mammals. Critical information on the species is lacking, hindering evidence-based conservation and management in a human-dominated landscape. In this thesis, I used a combination of molecular and landscape approaches to assess the genetic health and population genetic structure of M. bechsteinii and understand how the British landscape affects the species habitat and its connectivity. I also aimed to develop new molecular tools, such as non-invasive genetic sampling and molecular ageing, which could then be used to better monitor the species. Data from nuclear markers (microsatellites) showed high levels of genetic diversity and little inbreeding across the species range, though genetic diversity was slightly lower in Britain than in mainland Europe. Bayesian and spatial Principal Components (sPCA) analysis showed a clear separation between British and European populations. This analysis also revealed that in Europe the Italian population south of the Alps was found to constitute a different group from other sites. In Britain, there was genetic structuring between the northern and southern part of the species range. Despite there being little genetic divergence in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences throughout most of Europe, the mtDNA patterns in Britain confirmed this separation of northern and southern populations. Such genetic structuring within Britain — in the absence of any obvious physical barriers — suggested that other features such as landuse may limit gene-flow. To better understand how the species interacts with 4 the British landscape, I used a landscape genetic approach, habitat suitability modelling using presence-only data and a landscape connectivity analysis. The negative association of M. bechsteinii presence with distance from woodland was identified as the main variable determining habitat suitability, while the landscape genetics results highlighted the importance of woodlands for gene flow. M. bechsteinii habitat was highly fragmented and only showed good connectivity if the species was able to disperse over 5,000 m. These results subsequently highlight the importance of woodlands not only for providing suitable habitat, but also in maintaining genetic connectivity between populations. Then, I investigated the use of non-invasive capture-mark-recapture (CMR) and demographic history models to estimate the population size and changes of M. bechsteinii. Bat droppings were collected below roosting sites of a single colony. After species identification, the 123 droppings belonging to M. bechsteinii were genotyped at nine DNA microsatellite loci in order to differentiate all individuals. All microsatellites showed very low amplification rates indicating low quality samples. However, at a larger scale, the use of population demographic models to assess effective population size variation using a dataset of 260 bats of the British population gave an estimate of the effective population size of 6,569 (CI: 5,307-8,006) and suggested that the British population of Myotis bechsteinii is stable and possibly expanding. Finally, I developed an epigenetic assay to estimate the age of individual bats. For this, I measured DNA methylation on bats of known age at seven CpG sites from three genes. All CpG sites from the tested genes showed a significant relationship between DNA methylation and age and provided reliable age estimates. 5 The findings presented in this thesis show that despite exhibiting high levels of genetic diversity throughout its range, the genetic structure, habitat and connectivity of M. bechsteinii populations is highly influenced by woodlands. It also offers a novel method to monitor the species by developing an assay which can provide information on the age structure of an entire colony from a single sampling session. Such approaches are much needed in the field of conservation and could in the future help preserve a wider range of species.

Resumo: A resposta ao estresse tem uma importante função auxiliadora que permite que os organismos lidem e sobrevivam a ameaças ao seu equilíbrio interno. Entretanto, a ativação crônica da resposta ao estresse, como a causada pela perturbação do ambiente, pode acarretar em diversos efeitos deletérios diminuindo a aptidão dos indivíduos e colocando em risco populações locais das espécies. Investigamos o efeito da perturbação ambiental sobre os morcegos Artibeus obscurus e Artibeus fimbriatus de uma área preservada e de uma área perturbada de Mata Atlântica do Brasil. Indicadores ecológicos e fisiológicos foram utilizados para se verificar a sensibilidade à modificação ambiental, condição corpórea, e a resposta ao estresse entre populações das duas áreas. O índice ecológico de sensibilidade à perturbação, baseado em medidas de abundância, sugere que A. obscurus é mais tolerante a modificações ambientais do que A. fimbriatus (34% e 76%, respectivamente). As análises de índice de condição corpórea (IC) demonstraram que A. obscurus não demonstrou mudança na condição corpórea entre áreas enquanto A. fimbriatus apresentou menores valores de IC na área perturbada do que na preservada. Adicionalmente, os níveis de base e de estresse-induzido do hormônio indicador de estresse (cortisol) não diferiram entre áreas para A. obscurus enquanto que uma marcada diferença foi observada para A. fimbriatus que apresentou níveis de base aproximadamente 52% maiores na área perturbada. Possivelmente, a maior tolerância a perturbação ambiental observada para A. obscurus seja decorrente da capacidade que esta espécie possui em habituar-se hormonalmente ao ambiente perturbado e evitar as conseqüências deletérias do estresse crônico. Por outro lado, a incapacidade de habituação de A. fimbriatus ao ambiente perturbado pode estar ocasionando debilitações... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The stress response plays a physiological key role by allowing the organisms to cope and survive to situations of risks for your internal balance. However, the chronic activation of the stress response, as the one triggered by environmental disturbances, can result in several deleterious effects to the organisms, which may reduce the fitness and jeopardize the maintenance of populations of sensitive species. We investigated the effect of the environmental disturbance on the bats Artibeus obscurus and Artibeus fimbriatus in the Atlantic forest of Brazil. Ecological and physiological indicators were used to compare the sensitivity to environmental changes, body condition, and stress response between populations in an undisturbed and a disturbed area. The ecological index of sensitivity to changes, based on measures of population abundances, suggests that A. obscurus is more tolerant to environmental modifications than A. fimbriatus (34% and 76%, respectively). The body condition indexes (IC) of A. obscurus were similar between areas, whereas the IC of A. fimbriatus was smaller in the disturbed area compared to the undisturbed. Additionally, levels of basal and stress-induced circulating cortisol of A. obscurus did not differ between the two areas, whereas the hormonal levels of A. fimbriatus were markedly different, for instance presenting a baseline cortisol level 52% higher in the disturbed area. Possibly, the tolerance to environmental changes observed in A. obscurus is due to its higher habituation ability which prevents the species to suffer from the deleterious consequences of the chronic stress. On the other hand, the failure of habituation of A. fimbriatus to disturbed environments can lead to physiological disorders, as expressed by decrease the body condition index. / Orientador: Ariovaldo Pereira da Cruz Neto / Coorientador: José Eduardo de Carvalho / Banca: Fernando Ribeiro Gomes / Banca: Marco Aurélio Ribeiro Mello / Mestre

No description available.

Throughout the world, the increasing use of land for agriculture has been associated with extensive loss and fragmentation of natural habitats and, frequently, the degradation of remaining habitats. The effects of such habitat changes have been well studied for some faunal groups, but little is known of their consequences for bats. The aim of this study was to investigate the ecology and conservation of an assemblage of insectivorous bats in a rural landscape, with particular focus on their foraging and roosting requirements. This increased knowledge will, hopefully, assist the formulation of policy and management decisions to ensure the long-term survival of bats in these altered environments. The distribution and abundance of insectivorous bats in the Northern Plains of Victoria was investigated to determine the impacts of land-use change and to identify factors influencing the distribution of bats in rural landscapes. Thirteen species of insectivorous bats were recorded across the region by sampling at 184 sites. Two species were rare, but the remaining 11 species were widespread and occurred in all types of remnant wooded vegetation, ranging from large blocks (≥200 ha) to small isolated remnants (≤5 ha) and scattered trees in cleared farm paddocks. There was no significant difference between remnant types in the relative abundance of bat species, in species richness, or in the composition of bat assemblages at study sites. In a subsequent study, no difference in the activity levels of bats was found between remnants with different tree densities, ranging from densely-vegetated blocks to single paddock trees. However, sites in open paddocks devoid of trees differed significantly from all types of wooded remnants and had significantly lower levels of bat activity and a different species composition. In highly cleared and modified landscapes, all native vegetation has value to bats, even the smallest remnant, roadside and single paddock tree. Roost sites are a key habitat requirement for bats and may be a limiting resource in highly modified environments. Two species, the lesser long-eared bat Nyctophilus geoffroyi and Gould's wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldii, were investigated as a basis for understanding the capacity of bats to survive in agricultural landscapes. These species have different wing morphologies, which may be influential in how they use the landscape, and anecdotal evidence suggested differences in their roosting ecology. Roosting ecology was examined using radio-tracking to locate 376 roosts in two study areas with contrasting tree cover in northern Victoria. Both species were highly selective in the location of their roosts in the landscape, in roost-site selection and in roosting behaviour, and responded differently to differing levels of availability of roosts. The Barmah-Picola study area incorporated remnant vegetation in farmland and an adjacent extensive floodplain forest (Barmah forest). Male N. geojfroyi roosted predominantly within 3 km of their foraging areas in remnants in farmland. However, most female N. geoffroyi, and both sexes of C. gouldii, roosted in Barmah forest up to 12 km from their foraging areas in farmland remnants. These distances were greater than previously recorded for these species and further than predicted by wing morphology. In contrast, in the second study area (Naring) where only small remnants of wooded vegetation remain in farmland, individuals of both species moved significantly shorter distances between roost sites and foraging areas. There were marked inter- and intra-specific differences in the roosts selected. C. gouldii used similar types of roosts in both areas - predominantly dead spouts in large, live trees. N. geoffroyi used a broader range of roost types, especially in the farmland environment. Roosts were typically under bark and in fissures, with males in particular also using anthropogenic structures. A strong preference was shown by both sexes for roosts in dead trees, and entrance dimensions of roosts were consistently narrow (2.5 cm). In Barmah forest, maternity roosts used by N. geoffroyi were predominantly in narrow fissures in large-diameter, dead trees, while at Naring maternity roosts were also found under bark, in buildings, and in small-diameter, live and dead trees. The number of roost trees that are required for an individual or colony is influenced by the frequency with which bats move between roosts, the proportion of roosts that are re-used, the distance between consecutive roosts, and the size of roosting colonies. Both species roosted in small colonies and regularly shifted roost sites within a discrete roost area. These behavioural traits suggest that a high density of roost sites is required. There were marked differences in these aspects of behaviour between individuals roosting in Barmah forest and in the fragmented rural landscape. At Naring, N. geqffroyi remained in roosts for longer periods and moved greater distances between consecutive roosts than in Barmah forest. In contrast, C. gouldii used a smaller pool of roosts in the farmland environment by re-using roosts more frequently. Within Barmah forest, there is an extensive area of forest but the density of hollow-bearing trees is reduced due to timber harvesting and silvicultural practices. Individuals were selective in the location of their roosting areas, with both species selecting parts of the forest that contained higher densities of their preferred roost trees than was generally available in the forest. In contrast, in farmland at Naring, where there were small pockets of remnant vegetation with high densities of potential roost sites surrounded by cleared paddocks with few roosting opportunities, little selection was shown. This suggests that in Barmah forest the density of trees with potential roosts is lower than optimal, while in farmland roosting resources may be adequate in woodland remnants, but limiting at the landscape scale since more than 95% of the landscape now provides no roosting opportunities. Insectivorous bats appear to be less severely affected than some other faunal groups by habitat fragmentation and land-use change. A highly developed capacity for flight, the spatial scale at which they move and their ability to cross open areas means that they can regularly move among multiple landscape elements, rather than depend on single remnants for all their resources. In addition, bats forage and roost mainly at elevated levels in trees and so are less sensitive to degradation of wooded habitats at ground level. Although seemingly resilient to habitat fragmentation, insectivorous bats are fundamentally dependent on trees for roosting and foraging, and so are vulnerable to habitat loss and ongoing rural tree decline. Protection of the remaining large old trees and measures to ensure regeneration to provide ongoing replacement of hollow-bearing trees through time are critical to ensure the long-term conservation of bats in rural landscapes.

Gene flow dictates a broad range of ecological and evolutionary processes. Understanding the factors mediating magnitude and direction of gene flow is crucial for interpreting patterns of genetic diversity and for answering many kinds of biological questions. Recent advances at the interface of population genetics and GIS technology have expanded our perspective of the geographic and physical features influencing gene flow and, in turn, shaping genetic structure of populations. I investigated the effect of surface-level trade winds on genetic structure and gene flow in two species of phyllostomid bats in the Bahamas and Greater Antilles: Erophylla sezekorni (the buffy flower bat) and Macrotus waterhousii (Waterhouse's leaf-nosed bat). Bayesian Clustering Analysis revealed that all islands sampled represent independent genetic populations for M. waterhousii but not for E. sezekorni. Samples from 13 islands (spanning E. sezekorni?s range) clustered into five genetic populations and revealed the existence of two main clades (eastern: Hispaniola and Puerto Rico; western: Cuba, Jamaica, and Bahamas). To test the hypothesis that surface-level trade winds mediate gene flow in this system, I generated measures of effective distance between islands using anisotropic cost modeling based on wind data from the National Climactic Data Center. Both species exhibited significant isolation by distance with geographical distance and some of the measures of effective distance, but effective distance did not provide increased explanatory power in predicting distribution of genetic diversity. The IBDGEO slope was steeper for E. sezekorni than M. waterhousii, suggesting greater dispersal ability in the former species. According to Maximum Likelihood analysis, a majority (80%) of gene flow between genetic populations was asymmetric in both species. The degree of asymmetric gene flow between populations was not explained by the degree of asymmetry in effective distance or island area, indicating an unknown mechanism driving asymmetric gene flow. More information about the ecology of these taxa is required to understand the incidence of asymmetric gene flow in this system. The results of this study suggest that gene flow among islands is highly restricted for M. waterhousii and that this species deserves greater taxonomic attention and conservation concern.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--York University, 2004. Graduate Programme in Biology. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 110-131). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/yorku/fullcit?pNQ99145

Thesis (M.S.)--University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2006. / Title from PDF title page screen. Advisor: Matina Kalcounis-Rüppell, R. Mark Brigham; submitted to the Dept. of Biology. Includes bibliographical references (p. 60-68).

In this research, a novel approach that utilizes Moran’s I statistical analyses to examine the spatio-temporal dispersal patterns of the White-Nose Syndrome currently affecting North American bat species is undertaken to further understand the disease transmission mechanism(s) of this emerging wildlife epidemic. White-Nose Syndrome has been responsible for in excess of five million bat deaths to date and has the potential to alter the ecological landscape significantly; however, due to a variety of factors, little research has been conducted into the patterns of infection on a national scale. Global and Local Moran’s I analyses were performed on the spatial-temporal variable of month and location from the initial outbreak site in order to address the spread of the Geomyces destructans fungus that causes White-Nose Syndrome. A comprehensive dataset of outbreak confirmation sites has been compiled and statistical analysis using ArcGIS reveals a complex pattern of disease dispersion since initial discovery of the disease, and shows important policy and management implications, in particular the need for more standardized and rigorous data collection and reporting procedures.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 1999. / Typescript. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 206-223). Also available on the Internet.