The Mental Toughness Questionnaire-48 (MTQ48; Earle, 2006) is the most utilised instrument to measure Mental Toughness (MT) in sport (Gucciardi, Hanton, & Mallett, 2012). To date, preliminary research examining the factorial validity of the MTQ48 has yielded equivocal findings (Gucciardi et al; Horsburgh, Schermer, Veselka, & Vernon, 2009) regarding its ability to measure the 4/6C’s model of MT (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002; Earle). The primary aim of this thesis was to provide a truly comprehensive examination of the factorial validity of the MTQ48 in an effort to provide an adequate measure of the 4/6C’s model of MT. Study 1 re-examined the factor structure of the MTQ48 by using a very large sample of competitive student athletes and found little support for its factorial validity. Inspection of item content revealed concerns regarding the adequacy of MTQ48 items to represent the 4/6C’s model of MT. Study 2 developed the University of Chichester Mental Toughness Questionnaire (UCMTQ) whereby items were generated to better represent the 4/6C’s model of MT. Although the UCMTQ’s factorial validity was superior to the tested models of the MTQ48, the results of Study 2 provided little support for its factorial validity. It was concluded that the poor factorial validity of the UCMTQ could have been due to the inadequacy of the factor definitions developed by Clough, Marchant, and Earle (2007) to represent the core traits underpinning the 4/6C’s model of MT (challenge, commitment, control, and confidence).

Exercise dependence is described as " ... psychological and/or physiological dependence upon a regular regime of physical activity ... and is characterised by recognisable withdrawal symptoms when the need to exercise remains unfulfilled after 24-36 hours ... " (Sachs & Pargman, 1979 p. 143). The study of exercise dependence has been a focus for consideration by researchers from the disciplines of physiology and psychology for approximately 30 years. Throughout this time, researchers have sought to measure, treat and prevent exercise dependence. A disease-based model has, therefore, dominated research and an extreme form of exercise behaviour has been medicalised. This study challenges the notion of the disease concept of exercise dependence and offers an alternative conceptualisation based on situation, time (Peele, 1985) and identity. It suggests that this medicalised concept of exercise dependence arises through a process of labelling certain types of participation for which there are only individual societal rewards. In interviews (n=27) with individuals and their significant others over three phases of data collection, life history analysis of the participants' subjective experiences of exercise dependence indicates that there is no evidence of 'negative addiction' (Hailey & Bailey, 1982). There is also no evidence of a negative impact on significant other relationships, although intense commitment to exercise sometimes causes temporary periods of conflict. Significant others accommodate their partners' exercise participation within the relationship and participants accommodate relationship demands within their exercise regime. The analysis also indicates that dependent participants, 'exercisers', have a changing attitude to exercise throughout their life history. It is proposed that the participants in this study construct one element of their self-identity through their exercise participation and that is subdivided into the physical self, the critical self and the social sel£ The thesis offers nine Propositions in an attempt to establish the basis for a sociological understanding of exercise dependence.

Research (e.g. McKelvie, 1990) has shown that order of information can influence judgments. In light of equivocal findings in this research, Hogarth and Einhorn (1992) developed their belief-adjustment model to present a more detailed approach to predicting order effects. Greenlees, Dicks, Thelwell and Holder (2007) were the first to test the predictions of the belief-adjustment model in sport. The aim of this thesis was to extend Greenlees et al.'s work through a more systematic examination of order effects in sport. Specifically, the aims were to examine the generalisability of Greenlees et al.'s findings, to examine the impact of differing processing strategies on order effects, to investigate the influence of personality traits, and to consider variables that might offset order effects. To achieve these aims, four experimental studies were conducted. In Study 1, ultimate frisbee players watched DVD footage of two players (a control and target player) performing a catching and throwing drill, and assessed the ability of each target player. Participants viewed the same footage for the control player. For the target player, participants viewed the same footage, with half viewing a declining (successful to unsuccessful) performance pattern, and half viewing an ascending pattern. Study I found primacy effects when participants made one end-of-sequence (EoS) judgment. In addition, step-by-step (SbS) judgments eliminated primacy effects. Study I also controlled for the time delay inherent in making the SbS judgments, and found that SbS processing, rather than the time delays, eliminated order effects. Study 2 examined the effect of individual differences on order effects. Using the same methodology as in Study I, the impact of participants' theory of learning, level of motivation to think, and level of experience were examined.

Theoretical models of expectancy processes (e.g., Olson, Roese, & Zanna, 1996) have conceptualised the sources of information by which expectancies of others are formed, and suggest that expectancies have the potential to influence the cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses of both perceivers and targets. The main aim of this thesis was to examine expectancy effects within the coach-athlete relationship from the perspective of the athlete. Specifically, the aims were to examine: a) the sources of information that athletes deem influential when developing expectancies of a coach; b) the cognitive consequences of athletes' expectancies of coaches; c) the affective responses of athletes to initial expectancies of a coach; and d) the behavioural consequences of athletes' expectancies of their coach. In order to achieve these aims, the investigation employed a range of experimental methods including an explorative survey (study one); experimental designs, which involved obtaining athletes' ratings in response to a range of stimuli such as static photographs, written information, and dynamic video footage (studies two and three); and a field-based examination, which was assessed via a combination of notational analysis and questionnaire (study four). The main findings reveal that while static cues (e.g., gender) are deemed relatively unimportant during impression formation, dynamic cues (e.g., facial expressions) and third-party reports (e.g., reputation) are viewed by athletes as influential factors in the formation of expectancies about coaches. Specifically, the findings suggest that athletes' initial expectancies of an unknown coach's competency are influenced by the presentation of reputation information. Although the results show that coach gender also has a significant impact on athletes' expectancies, the effect of gender on athletes' expectancies was not as large as that of reputation information. In addition, reputation information is shown to significantly impact on athletes' positive affective responses to a coach. Finally, the results demonstrate that coach reputation impacts on athletes' attention, effort, and persistence during a training session. Overall, the research presented in this thesis provides support for the use of Olson et al.'s (1996) model of expectancy processes as a theoretical framework for the investigation of expectancy effects within the coach-athlete relationship. The thesis provides initial empirical support for the contention that athletes' expectancies of coaches impact on athletes' cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses. Such findings have important implications for coaching guidelines and the development of effective coach-athlete relationships. The proposal that third-party reports represent an influential source of information with regard to expectancy formation in sport has also received initial support.

The primary aim of the present thesis was to investigate the role that individual and situational factors play in moderating the impact that pre-event expectancies have on judgements of a tennis player's performance. The current programme of research utilised a between subjects design with competitive tennis players (Studies 1 and 2) and undergraduate volunteers (Studies 3, 4 and 5) being assigned to one of four experimental conditions in each study. The results of Study 1 supported past research findings (Buscombe et al., 2006) confirming the role that body language plays in influencing the impressions formed of tennis players. However, the results did not demonstrate expectancy effects with early judgements of a performer failing to influence subsequent ratings of that individual's play. Study 2 found that the participants' level of trait confidence and trait anxiety did not moderate the impact of body language on judgements of performance. Study 3 demonstrated an interaction between body language and time pressure (F(l, 53)=12.00, p=.OOl) such that when under time pressure the participants rated the target's play more favourably having previously viewed the player displaying positive (M=42.76, SD=7.25) as opposed to negative (M=24.2S, SD=5.lS) body language. As such, it was concluded that time pressure may serve to moderate expectancy effects in sport. Study 3 also indicated that a perceiver's dispositional need for closure did not exert any influence over judgments of the performer. Study 4 demonstrated that increasing the participants' accountability for their judgements did not moderate expectancy effects. However, in line with the results of Study 3, the player's body language was seen to influence ratings of that individual's performance. Employ a reallife target performer, Study 5 demonstrated that prior knowledge of the target player's recent win/loss record influenced the participants' subsequent ratings of that individual's performance (F(l, llS)=lO.72,p=.OOl). Specifically, the participants' ratings of play were more favourable having been presented with a positive (M=41.7, SE=.S7), as opposed to a negative (M=37.74, SE=.S3) prior playing record for the performer. Overall, the thesis indicates that expectancy effects are evident in sport and that the length of time permitted to a perceiver to form a judgement of an athlete may moderate these effects. This thesis provides the first structured examination in the extant literature of the role that individual and situational factors play in moderating expectancy effects in sport. Furthermore, the thesis provides the first indication that expectancy effects may be witnessed in real-life contests between two sports performers.

An initial field based study was undertaken to measure and compare the intensity and directional sub-components of the state anxiety response in reflection to performance in cricket, in accordance with Hanin's (1980) Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning hypothesis. Following the results of the initial study, an alternative line of inquiry was followed. Subsequent investigations focused on the concept of 'repeatable good performance' as opposed to heightened performance states. More specifically, a triangulation of research studies, employing an inductive content analysis, a cultural consensus analysis and the repertory grid technique, attempted to understand what constitutes such a performance state in cricket. Additionally, the three studies attempted to establish what factors precede or are present during consistent good performance, and whether the antecedents for repeatable good performance are similar for varying roles within cricket. The triangulation generated a group of core element antecedents including: total self-confidence; optimal arousal levels; motivation and focus; and total match preparation, including, pre-match routines, set performance plans and use of imagery that are required by both batters and bowlers for the occurrence of repeatable good performance. An applied research study indicated that when the psychological requirements for repeatable good performance were included within an intervention, the potential for achieving repeatable good performance, and performance improvements, were increased. The study suggests repeatable good performance to be a viable construct within applied sport psychology. Despite such claims, further research is required to develop a scientifically valid definition of the construct, in addition to the further development of methods that allow for the identification and measurement of consistent performance.

A series of experiments was carried out to examine the effect of moderate and maximal exercise on decision-making performance in team games. Subjects' speed and accuracy of decision making were examined using tachistoscopically presented tests of decision making in sports specific tests. The complexity of the decision making tests was manipulated as was the instructional set given to the subjects. Subjects were tested at rest and while exercising at 70% and 100% of their maximal power output (MPO). Multiple analysis techniques showed unequivocally that, regardless of complexity or instructional set, performance at rest was significantly poorer than that during maximal exercise. Observation of the data showed that this difference was mainly due to increases in speed of decision with accuracy making no significant contribution to the results. The results concerning the effect of moderate intensity exercise were equivocal. In some studies performance during exercise at 70% MPO was significantly better than that at rest, while in other studies no significant effect was demonstrated. Similar results were found when comparing performance during 70% and 100% MPO. In all experiments, however, a linear trend was observed. This was due to the contribution of changes in speed of decision, with accuracy making no significant contribution to the results. It was concluded that maximal exercise results in increases in speed of decision making in team games. This can probably be best explained by exercise inducing changes in arousal, which in tum leads to an increase in the available central nervous system levels of allocatable resources. It was further argued that maximal exercise does not stress fit subjects enough to cause the individual to allocate resources to anything other than task specific information. The use of theories of emotionally induced arousal to explain the effect of exercise on decision-making performance was questioned.