A growing body of research has outlined that humans gain social rank through two pathways: prestige and dominance. This dual model of social hierarchy advocates that individuals either attain positions of high rank though signals of an ability and willingness to either inflict harm (dominance) or confer benefits (prestige) to group members. While there is growing support for the dual model of social hierarchy, the extant empirical evidence has been cross-sectional and has neglected the impact that time and context has on the efficacy of prestige and dominance as long-term processes. The present research outlines a theoretical framework for the trajectories of prestige, dominance and social rank over time, and further provides longitudinal evidence of their temporal dynamics. In addition, the current research tests the longitudinal associations that prestige and dominance have with social networks, Results of study 1 suggest that, in collaborative task groups, prestige has a positive and bidirectional temporal association with social rank, while the association that dominance has diminished over time. Study 2 indicated that in these task groups those high in prestige were more likely to be asked advice and prestige was transmitted through advice ties but had a limited association with friendship. Those high in dominance were less likely to be nominated as friends, but dominance was transmitted through friendship ties. Results from Study 3 suggest that those high in prestige status were more likely to aid in food sharing and food production, and that the prestige status of an individual’s food sharing and food production partners increased their prestige status over a period of twelve years among the Tsimane forager-horticulturalists of Bolivia. Overall, the present research highlights the distinction between prestige and dominance over time and shows that prestige, dominance, social rank and social networks have bidirectional, dynamic relationships over time.

The thesis presents research on the effects of a Mind-Body (M-B) training programme on emotional competencies, stress and job satisfaction. This is of practical importance for the workplace, as stress and job satisfaction are important management issues. The theoretical contributions of this research relate to the debate around whether emotional competencies can be developed or not, the mediating role of emotional competencies between the intensity of M-B training, and stress and job satisfaction, and the underlying mechanism of these effects, i.e how M-B training functions and hence why the effects occur. The M-B training programme lasted eight weeks and was tested on 106 participants. The participants were split into two groups: an experimental and a control group. The experimental group practiced the training programme, while the control did not. Dependent variables were measured using questionnaires both before and after the training programme. The participants had an open question at post-intervention survey about how they felt during M-B practice. The research also included a qualitative longitudinal study. Nine participants were interviewed immediately after the M-B training intervention, and again one year later in order to see whether the effects were sustained. Hence, this research was conducted as a longitudinal mixed methods design. The results reveal that M-B training has an effect on emotional competencies, stress and job satisfaction. These improved between 10-26%. The study also found that the ability to manage and regulate emotions play a mediating role between the intensity of M-B training and perceived stress, but not job satisfaction. The qualitative data suggests that mental skills might play a mediating role. Finally, the results reveal that physical, emotional, mental and spiritual mechanisms explain how M-B training works.

Despite being the most common reason for admission to psychiatric inpatient services in the UK (Bowers, 2005), no evidence-based treatment currently exists for self-harm in this setting (Turner, Austin & Chapman, 2014; Winter et al., 2007). Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT) has found promising results in treating self-harm in outpatient settings (Linehan, 1993a). More recently, there have been favourable results from a DBT-informed group in an inpatient setting (Gibson, Booth, Davenport, Keogh & Owens, 2014), however the intervention was longer than the average stay on an inpatient ward (23 days; Health and Social Care Information Centre, 2014). The aim of the current study was to assess the feasibility of a novel DBT-informed group for people who self-harm within the average length of an inpatient stay. The ‘Coping with Crisis’ (CwC) group protocol was compiled using DBT skills (Linehan, 1993a), with particular focus on crisis management strategies. In line with the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines for feasibility studies (Eldridge et al., 2016), the aim was to collect data on the rates of recruitment, retention, outcome measure completion and participant feedback, in order to inform the design of a main study. Twenty-four participants were recruited from an inpatient ward in a National Health Service (NHS) Trust. Results suggest that the clinicians and participants found the CwC group acceptable and it was found to be feasible to run the group and research study on an inpatient ward. However, the study experienced several challenges in terms of recruiting to target (80% achieved), retaining participants in the treatment groups and completed post-intervention outcome measures (n = 9; 38%). This information, in addition to feedback from the participants can be used to inform adaptions to the study design and make recommendations to improve outcomes for future research.

Background: Psychosis was once considered a progressive and untreatable “illness” due to a “diseased brain”. Current thinking suggests childhood adversity along with a combination of psychological, biological and environmental factors influence the development of psychosis experiences, with recovery now considered an achievable aim. Recovery is a multifaceted concept. Research indicates that service-users hold different views about recovery, however research exploring recovery from the viewpoint of those who are currently inpatients is scarce. Aims: The aim of the current study is to explore the views that a group of service-users who are currently inpatients in a psychiatric hospital, hold about what is important to them in recovery. Method: Q-methodology allows the exploration of the distinct viewpoints that are present among a group of people in relation to a subject matter. Thirty-eight participants were recruited across four acute psychiatric wards from a London based psychiatric hospital. Using Q-methodology, participants engaged in a card sort task where they ordered 54 statements relating to recovery from most to least important to them. Results: The analysis revealed four distinct viewpoints held among the group regarding factors that are important to recovery from psychosis. These were: “Stability, independence, and having a roof over your head”, “Hope, optimism, and enhancing wellbeing”, “Emotional change through self-management and social support”, and “Symptom reduction through mental health support”. Conclusions: Service-users who experience psychosis and are currently inpatients, hold different views about what is helpful to them in recovery. Services must be sensitive to the subjective conceptualisations service-users hold of their experiences and be flexible in tailoring support to meet their needs. The findings from this study suggest that changes are required both within services and at a socio-political level, in order to support people with psychosis toward recovery. Clinical implications and areas for future research are discussed.

Statistics have shown that 30% of women in the UK experience childbirth as traumatising, and some may as a consequence go on to experience symptoms of anxiety, depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, some women do not go on to develop PTSD. As this is a relatively common occurrence, an important question is: How do women who experience a difficult birth develop resilience? Research has mainly focused on the development of PTSD in such women and researchers have therefore recently tried to shift the focus to positive outcomes following a traumatic birth. The focus of positive outcomes has mainly been around post-traumatic growth and researchers have called for more investigations into the area of resilience. At present, research is still sparse in the area of traumatic birth and resilience. Objectives: The aim of this study was to understand the process of fostering resilience after a traumatic birth. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight female participants aged 30 to 50 years who experienced a traumatic childbirth. A constructivist grounded theory was used to analyse interviews. Results: A new model of the process of resilience following a traumatic birth was devised, which emerged from the data. The core category of ‘The Journey towards Resilience following a Traumatic Birth’ was described and connected to the five following categories: Category 1: Traumatic birth: To be cared for ‒ who’s accountable?; Category 2: Moving towards faith and spirituality; Category 3: Motherhood becomes you; Category 4: Supportive relationships; Category 5: Self-care ‒ as a way of owning my journey. Discussion: The model suggests that the journey towards resilience is a process whereby women move towards internal or external resources or both at different points on their journey. This study brings new findings to the area of traumatic birth and resilience which will help guide counselling psychologists and health professionals on how to promote resilience in birthing mothers.

Aims: The aim of the current study is to investigate the usefulness of an internet based positive body image intervention for women which incorporates feminist ideas and media literacy. This novel study will be an initial trial with a non-clinical population of women looking to learn about body image in order to evaluate if it is feasible as an intervention to improve body image in this format. Methods: The present study employed a sequential mixed methods prepost within groups online intervention outcomes study design, whereby quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis were sequentially undertaken. Phase 1: collected baseline questionnaire data online to screen for eligible participants (N=95), and then measure their level of body dissatisfaction, body appreciation and body anxiety. After 24 hours, Phase 2 commenced: participants received a link to an online psycho-educational intervention (an educational programme of 60-minutes duration), after which they immediately completed (N=80, drop out rate 15.79%) post-intervention questionnaire measures. In Phase 3: semi structured follow-up interviews were conducted with a subsample of the intervention participants (N=4) to gather their feedback on the strengths and limitations of the online intervention. Results: Paired t-test results comparing pre and post scores on the three main measures showed a significant decrease in scores on a body dissatisfaction measure, PFRS (t(79)=9.554, p < .001); a significant increase on a body appreciation measure, BAS (t(79)=-11.464, p < .001); and a significant decrease on a body anxiety measure, SPAS (t(79)= 8.833, p < .001). The thematic analysis of the semi-structured interviews showed four 13 emergent themes: focus on girls and teenagers, media influence and literacy, positive impacts of the intervention, and recommendations. Overall feedback was positive and participants found the intervention insightful and empowering. Conclusions: Collectively, the quantitative and qualitative findings supported each other regarding the development of a novel intervention. The ‘Our Bodies’ Programme appeared to have a positive impact on women’s body image and it was acceptable in the format in which it was presented. However, the study did not include a control group or a follow-up, thus care needs to be taken when drawing conclusions from the results. Nevertheless, this research has the potential to contribute to the understanding of which population may be best suited for this programme, delivery format and dissemination strategies using the existing literature on media literacy, positive body image and feminist theories in order to ensure maximum impact. Future directions and implications for Counselling Psychology practice are discussed.

The focus of this study is to gain a deeper insight into the subjective and salient belief systems that are held by those individuals who have previously been detained or arrested under the counter terrorism legislation in the UK. Embedded in the theoretical work of Personal Construct Theory, 8 participants completed an extensive life narrative interview alongside a reparatory grid highlighting core constructs and belief systems. A thematic analysis of the corresponding data was undertaken from which a number of themes were identified. The most prominent emerging theme centred around the concept of empathy and empathic anger. i.e. the participants expressed a strong empathy connection towards those in conflict situations who were seen as victims and equally presented with a strong disapproval or empathic anger towards those who were viewed as aggressors and penultimately responsible for the atrocities. Although further research is required the implications of this emerging theme are significant in developing a holistic understanding of the factors which affect motivational drive of individuals who are 'radicalised'. This study builds upon the theoretical work of Hutson, Long & Page, (2009), Taylor & Horgan, (2006) and Moghaddam, (2005) who respectively identify a series of social and psychological processes which potentially exert an influence on the motivational drive. This study therefore suggests that the modulating factor or the spark which maintains an individual on the path of radicalisation is centred around this notion of empathic anger. This study suggests that individuals who are regarded as a radicalised threat go through a series of subjective experiences and processes are catapulted by this empathic response from merely feeling a grievance to actually rationalising a potential action. A number of additional themes centring around relationships (particularly the father), racisms and the impact of life changing events or trauma were also identified but would benefit from further investigation. The study also attempts to provide a critical look at the discourses around terrorism and radicalisation particularly the subjective and emotive uses of the terminology and the inevitable effects of political biases. A potential area for further study is suggested in the form of a theoretical model which suggests that depending upon the individual’s personal attributes the individual may gravitate towards one of 5 roles i.e. an idealist, soldier, Intellectual-Recruiter, Opportunist-Financier or Patsy. The limitations of the study centre around the relative small sample and the lack of diversity within the sample.

This thesis introduces two concomitant psychological perspectives, Regulatory Focus Theory and Regulatory Fit Theory to research in the field of audit judgment and decision making (JDM). The purpose of this thesis is to explore the applicability of the two theories in audit JDM research and to generate preliminary empirical results concerning their plausible implications. Regulatory Focus Theory (Higgins, 1997) provides a fundamental model of human cognition, emotion, and behaviour, as composed of two distinct self-regulation systems: promotion focus (concerned with nurturance needs) versus prevention focus (concerned with security needs). The developing theory has provided many remarkable insights into cognition and decision-making generally. It is proposed in this thesis that Regulatory Focus Theory has important implications for audit JDM, and that it may enrich the account of difference in audit judgment and cognition among auditors provided by prior research. Employing an audit task setting that involved judgment concerning investigation boundaries, this thesis reports evidence for the distinct effects of promotion focus versus prevention focus on cognition of temporal aspects of accounting information and on information processing styles in audit judgment. Participants represent a mix of accounting undergraduates, MBA students, and accounting practitioners. Compared with promotion- focused individuals, prevention-focused individuals over-discount the significance of accounting information distant in the past (five-years ago), while under-discount proximal (two-years ago) information. When information is processed procedurally rather than intuitively, differences in judgments among subjects with promotion versus prevention focus is significantly reduced. Higgins‘ later work looks at how strategic means serve one‘s regulatory focus dispositions and finds that certain strategic means or behaviours may better sustains or fit one‘s motivational state than others (Cesario, Higgins, and Scholer, 2008). The concept of regulatory fit has been applied by researchers in the field of consumer behaviour to study the effect of regulatory fit on the persuasiveness of advocacy messages (e.g., Avent and Higgins, 2006). This thesis proposes that the persuasion effect of regulatory fit can be applied to audit JDM and in particular to the persuasion aspects of the audit review process, and provides new evidence in support of the proposal. The persuasion effect of regulatory fit is examined in a scenario constructed to be analogous to audit. Accounting undergraduates assume a role as independent party to advice the committee of a student drama club on planning of activities for the current year based on review of accounting information in relation to revenue generation of the club. Experimental results reported in this thesis show the relevance of regulatory fit / misfit in audit judgment. Across three settings of regulatory fit induction: The experiments manipulated various sources of regulatory fit – fit from framings of messages received; fit from strategic means applied within the task; and finally fit from prior performance in a separate task. The thesis has demonstrated methods by which regulatory fit can be created from various sources in audit contexts and offered findings suggesting factors affecting audit judgment not yet covered in extant research, e.g., order of audit tasks and the strategic manner of audit tasks (eager versus vigilant).

In recent times, literature has raised the importance of studying entrepreneurship in different contexts. There has been considerable research conducted in transitional contexts, as it raises the many challenges faced by entrepreneurs. There has been considerable research conducted in Russian, Eastern European and Chinese economies. However, there is a real dearth in the literature on the challenges faced in other transitional economies, particularly Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka was the first country in South Asia to embrace extensive economic liberalisation in 1977 (though the civil war, 1983-2009, in the north-east of the country blocked the full realisation of these economic benefits). Further, entrepreneurial learning in such turbulent and challenging environments has also been identified as a less-explored area. Against this backdrop, this research's overarching aim was to explore opportunity recognition and new venture creation experiences in the transitional context of Sri Lanka. Four main areas were covered: opportunity recognition and new venture creation, entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial motivation and institutional context. The mixed methodological approach was informed by a conceptual framework developed by the researcher. Semi-structured interviews with a non-random sample of 31 Sri Lankan entrepreneurs provided rich descriptions. Their learning styles/preferences were identified using a modified version of Kolb's (1984) learning style questionnaires through different stages of opportunity recognition and new venture creation. Findings suggest that Sri Lankan entrepreneurs' initial business ideas arose through prior knowledge, scanning the business environment and changes in government policies. Few initial resources were utilised; many relied on previous experience and relationships with customers and suppliers. Most participants were motivated by pull rather than push factors and individual entrepreneurs demonstrated a combination of learning styles/preferences rather than one. Entrepreneurs cited numerous challenges: frequent policy changes, rigid customs policies, unsupportive financial sector, high interest rates, lack of support for start-up firms, and lack of social recognition in society and among the government officials. Further, critical learning events occur in transitional and turbulent contexts such as Sri Lanka. The frequency of such events is high; resilience is required to ensure higher learning. This research has contributed to entrepreneurship theory in several ways. First, the author explored the under-researched transitional context of Sri Lanka to identify the challenges encountered during transition Second, the research contributes to the literature concerning learning styles during opportunity recognition and new venture creation, using a sample of entrepreneurs. The findings will help educators and practitioners tailor their training and educational programs. Further, this study brings new knowledge in relation what, how and when entrepreneurs learn in critical events in turbulent and challenging environments.

This PhD thesis examines a range of intrapersonal and interpersonal dynamics surrounding the concept of learner engagement. It does so by critically investigating a visual arts initiative delivered to a small group of Key Stage 3 students at a Pupil Referral Unit (PRU) in the North‐West of England. Participating students took part in an artist‐led workshop which aimed to enrich the school’s pre‐existing curriculum by expanding the range creative art activities available to students and by thematically integrating these activities with topics previously covered in other subject lessons. In order to permit a more in‐depth investigation of the educational experiences of these participants, a single‐case study design was employed whereby multiple sources of evidence were analysed in accordance with two key theoretical perspectives in the psychology of educational engagement. Self‐determination theory was drawn upon in order to consider individual‐level units of analysis and cultural historical activity theory (CHAT) was employed in order to consider the wider contextual factors that might influence the overall efficacy of the programme. Using a mixture of methods (i.e., questionnaires, interviews and classroom observations) allied to each perspective, staff and students’ perceptions of their school environment were examined in order to identify how they had developed their own experientially‐based understanding of what constitutes learner engagement within their particular educational environment. From here the analysis moves on to critically comparing the everyday classroom experiences of the students as they participated in the art initiative with that of students participating in subject lessons. By evaluating an educational initiative of this nature with respect to two prominent theoretical perspectives on student engagement, a more in‐depth understanding is developed on the psychological processes underpinning learners’ engagement amidst the everyday complexities that surround alternative educational environments. The results have implications for how teachers in this context reflect upon their practice.