The goal of this thesis is three-fold: to examine complementation in Balinese from typological, syntactic, and cognitive perspectives. This thesis contributes to typological studies of complementation by providing a descriptive account of the distinguishing syntactic properties of four types of Balinese clausal complements: sentence-like (s-like), Subject Control (SC), Object Control (OC), and Raising complements. The data presented in this thesis demonstrate the clausal complement in Balinese can be differentiated through the kinds of elements that can be admitted within the complements: the type of complementizer, aspectual auxiliaries, modals, temporal specifications, and overt subjects. The theoretical aspect of this thesis is the application of Minimalist theory to account for the syntactic structure of Balinese monoclausal and biclausal constructions. This thesis also addresses a theoretical problem related to the syntactic structure of complementation within Generative syntax: finiteness. The presence of modals, aspectual auxiliaries, and the temporal specification of the complement do not signify finiteness in Balinese. Instead, finiteness in Balinese is marked by the licensing of overt subjects in the clausal complement, following the argument made by Kurniawan & Davies (2015), based on the evidence provided through the comparison of control complements and their subjunctive sentence-like complement counterparts. The cognitive processing of Balinese complementation is investigated through two sentence processing experiments with the goals of understanding how ambiguous Crossed Control Construction (CCC) sentences are processed in comparison to the processing of unambiguous Subject Control (SC) sentences and Raising sentences. The self-paced reading experiment focuses on the comparison of reading times for the verbs in these three types of sentences when the animacy of the subject is manipulated (i.e. animate or inanimate clause-initial DP). The results suggest that CCC sentences are processed differently than the SC and Raising sentences. The second experiment aims at investigating the effect of discourse context on the interpretation of the ambiguous CCC sentences. The results show the influence of context that primes subject control interpretation on the processing of Balinese SC and CC sentences.

Debates on whether microfinance remains an effective measure to eradicate poverty and empower women have continued with a bigger question of if an alternative model is available to outweigh the problems of group-based solidarity-based lending scheme. This dissertation aims to study if and how a Lembaga Perkreditan Desa (LPD) – a community owned microfinance – affects women's agency in household and society, and most importantly to observe if it has long term effects on the reconstruction of gendered roles and relations. This study employed participation observation and semi-structured interviews for data collection because each method allowed the exploration of multi layered information and tacit values that other data collection methods do not provide. I spent four months conducting participant observation with female LPD clients from four villages and eight semi-structured interviews around Bali. This study concludes that social capital affects LPD's performance. Impacts of social capital on LPD are posited to occur through the immersion of LPDs into the village governance system that renders members' loyalty, trust, and respect, and the adoption of shared customary laws to name a few. LPD is also proven to strengthen social capital by increasing interdependence among community members; boosting the members' sense of belonging, trust, and responsibility for community development. However, LPD does not necessarily foster women's social capital. This study also found that access to LPD corresponds to women's agency in the household decision-making process. Three features of cooperative decision-making in household are 1) the ability to switch roles in the loan application process, 2) any LPD related financial decisions will involve women's opinion or approval in it, and 3) women have the control over the allocation and repayment of the loans from LPD. Furthermore, I argue that LPD facilitates women's social mobility by ensuring that their access to LPD remains intact. Moreover, LPD causes intergenerational impacts when women are involved in the lending-saving mechanism. Lastly, this study argues that LPD has long-term effects on the reconstruction of gendered roles and relations in Balinese society. / Doctor of Philosophy / This dissertation investigates the impacts of Lembaga Perkreditan Desa (LPD) – a community-owned village bank – to Balinese women from the perspective of four female LPD clients residing in various villages in Bali. In general, the study aims to gain understanding about rural Indonesian women in navigating their opportunities in male-oriented microfinance system. The study found that members of society – female and male – develop a shared understanding, norms, trust, and resources to strengthen their ties among each other called as community capital. My dissertation found that there exists a two-way relationship, instead of one way, between social capital and LPD. Derived from those reciprocal relationship, I argue that LPD may empower women in household and society, though it also may disempower them due to the LPD’s rules. Furthermore, LPD affects women’s capacity to make decisions in their households. These decisions including the ability to choose the right and most practical role when applying for loans and most importantly the capacity to manage the use of loans. LPD corresponds to women’s economic attainment and mobility across villages, yet, it does not correspond to the development of their professional networks. Moreover, LPD creates impacts across generation due to its lending mechanism, payment procedures, and financial benefits from allocating the loans for income generating activities. Lastly, if the LPD transforms the current and future relationships among men and women in household and society? my study found that LPD, through its immersion into the village system and customary values that guide the life of all community members, paves the way for women’s empowerment today and in the future.

A number of studies of Bali emerging in the last three decades have come to read Balinese culture as a cultural construct that has been invented and reinvented as a means to legitimate power relations on the island (e.g. Schulte Nordholt 1986, 1996, 1999; Vickers 1990; Picard 1996, 1999). Constructions of ‘Balinese culture’ have been explored and identified as central projects within the island’s internal contestation of dominance as well as within the establishment of colonial and postcolonial orders. Despite this scholarly exploration of the discursive nature of ‘authentic Balinese culture’, public obsession with a traditional Balinese architecture, conceived as an apolitical, exotic, and pre-existing architectural other, prevails. Architecture has been and continues to be an arena within which the notion of authentic Bali is convincingly authorised by its diverse proponents: the Dutch colonial government, the orientalist scholars, the travellers, the architects, and the local elites.This thesis explores the role of architectural discourses within the construction of identity in 20th century Bali. It investigates the way writings on Bali’s architecture and contemporary formations of domestic architecture on the island are implicated by the political imagining of an ‘authentic Balinese’ cultural identity. Invoking the architecture of Balinisation, this thesis argues that writings and domestic architectural realms are productive fields in which and by which identity and power relations are continuously formulated by those who observe Bali and by the observed ‘Balinese’ people.

Les collections de manuscrits sur feuilles de palmier sont devenues une partie intégrante de la culture et de la vie des peuples de l'Asie du Sud-Est. Avec l’augmentation des projets de numérisation des documents patrimoniaux à travers le monde, les collections de manuscrits sur feuilles de palmier ont finalement attiré l'attention des chercheurs en analyse d'images de documents (AID). Les travaux de recherche menés dans le cadre de cette thèse ont porté sur les manuscrits d'Indonésie, et en particulier sur les manuscrits de Bali. Nos travaux visent à proposer des méthodes d’analyse pour les manuscrits sur feuilles de palmier. En effet, ces collections offrent de nouveaux défis car elles utilisent, d’une part, un support spécifique : les feuilles de palmier, et d’autre part, un langage et un script qui n'ont jamais été analysés auparavant. Prenant en compte, le contexte et les conditions de stockage des collections de manuscrits sur feuilles de palmier à Bali, nos travaux ont pour objectif d’apporter une valeur ajoutée aux manuscrits numérisés en développant des outils pour analyser, translittérer et indexer le contenu des manuscrits sur feuilles de palmier. Ces systèmes rendront ces manuscrits plus accessibles, lisibles et compréhensibles à un public plus large ainsi que pour les chercheurs et les étudiants du monde entier. Cette thèse a permis de développer un système d’AID pour les images de documents sur feuilles de palmier, comprenant plusieurs tâches de traitement d'images : numérisation du document, construction de la vérité terrain, binarisation, segmentation des lignes de texte et des glyphes, la reconnaissance des glyphes et des mots, translittération et l’indexation de document. Nous avons ainsi créé le premier corpus et jeu de données de manuscrits balinais sur feuilles de palmier. Ce corpus est actuellement disponible pour les chercheurs en AID. Nous avons également développé un système de reconnaissance des glyphes et un système de translittération automatique des manuscrits balinais. Cette thèse propose un schéma complet de reconnaissance de glyphes spatialement catégorisé pour la translittération des manuscrits balinais sur feuilles de palmier. Le schéma proposé comprend six tâches : la segmentation de lignes de texte et de glyphes, un processus de classification de glyphes, la détection de la position spatiale pour la catégorisation des glyphes, une reconnaissance globale et catégorisée des glyphes, la sélection des glyphes et la translittération basée sur des règles phonologiques. La translittération automatique de l'écriture balinaise nécessite de mettre en œuvre des mécanismes de représentation des connaissances et des règles phonologiques. Nous proposons un système de translittération sans segmentation basée sur la méthode LSTM. Celui-ci a été testé sur des données réelles et synthétiques. Il comprend un schéma d'apprentissage à deux niveaux pouvant s’appliquer au niveau du mot et au niveau de la ligne de texte. / The collection of palm leaf manuscripts is an important part of Southeast Asian people’s culture and life. Following the increasing of the digitization projects of heritage documents around the world, the collection of palm leaf manuscripts in Southeast Asia finally attracted the attention of researchers in document image analysis (DIA). The research work conducted for this dissertation focused on the heritage documents of the collection of palm leaf manuscripts from Indonesia, especially the palm leaf manuscripts from Bali. This dissertation took part in exploring DIA researches for palm leaf manuscripts collection. This collection offers new challenges for DIA researches because it uses palm leaf as writing media and also with a language and script that have never been analyzed before. Motivated by the contextual situations and real conditions of the palm leaf manuscript collections in Bali, this research tried to bring added value to digitized palm leaf manuscripts by developing tools to analyze, to transliterate and to index the content of palm leaf manuscripts. These systems aim at making palm leaf manuscripts more accessible, readable and understandable to a wider audience and, to scholars and students all over the world. This research developed a DIA system for document images of palm leaf manuscripts, that includes several image processing tasks, beginning with digitization of the document, ground truth construction, binarization, text line and glyph segmentation, ending with glyph and word recognition, transliteration and document indexing and retrieval. In this research, we created the first corpus and dataset of the Balinese palm leaf manuscripts for the DIA research community. We also developed the glyph recognition system and the automatic transliteration system for the Balinese palm leaf manuscripts. This dissertation proposed a complete scheme of spatially categorized glyph recognition for the transliteration of Balinese palm leaf manuscripts. The proposed scheme consists of six tasks: the text line and glyph segmentation, the glyph ordering process, the detection of the spatial position for glyph category, the global and categorized glyph recognition, the option selection for glyph recognition and the transliteration with phonological rules-based machine. An implementation of knowledge representation and phonological rules for the automatic transliteration of Balinese script on palm leaf manuscript is proposed. The adaptation of a segmentation-free LSTM-based transliteration system with the generated synthetic dataset and the training schemes at two different levels (word level and text line level) is also proposed.

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