Faculty of Science School of Animal Plant and Enviromental Sciences 0404336v lmcnamara@gpf.co.za / Pine saw timber plantation forestry on the Eastern Escarpment of South Africa contributes significantly to the economy of the country. Losses to plantation value through fire, insects and disease, and particularly over the last decade, losses due to baboon damage are of serious concern. Anecdotal evidence indicated that baboons damage pine trees shortly following pruning operations and at certain times of the year. A perception existed that damage has increased dramatically, yet no documented evidence to this effect is available. As a result two physiological studies were undertaken to investigate whether changes in nutrient concentration of inner bark tissues of pine trees on the Eastern Escarpment of South Africa, act as triggers for baboon damage. A literature review was also undertaken to document the extent of baboon damage, tree volume and associated economic costs. A comparison was made with Zimbabwe, where baboon damage is quoted to be a severe threat to the continued viability of plantation forestry. The first study investigated changes in nutrient concentration of the soft, inner bark tissue of Pinus patula, in response to pruning measured in five year old plantations in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Samples of tissues were collected from pruned and unpruned trees at 2, 7, 14 and 28 days after 26% of the live crown had been removed in the pruning treatment. Results indicated that live pruning of Pinus patula did not influence nutrient concentration of inner bark tissues at set intervals post pruning. Treatment differences of aggregate data for sample interval showed that potassium concentration increased by 0.03% whereas magnesium concentration decreased by 0.02% following pruning. Aggregate data for treatment showed that phosphorus, carbohydrates (fructose, glucose, sucrose and starch), boron and nitrogen concentration, and moisture content of inner bark tissues varied during the short time period of the study. Variations are attributed to iv the commencement of growth, translocation of nutrients from needles and branches and possibly moisture stress. Results from the study do not support anecdotal evidence that baboon damage to pine plantations which increases shortly after pruning operations is as a direct physiological response to the pruning event. In this study it is much more likely that changes in nutrient concentrations coincided with a remobilization of resources in response to seasonal triggers. In the second study, nutrient concentrations of the inner bark of Pinus patula and Pinus taeda growing on the Eastern Escarpment of South Africa were studied over a seasonal cycle in order to investigate the allegations that baboon damage in the plantations was related to the degree of nutrient remobilization. Significant differences were found in phosphorus concentration and moisture content across seasons and between baboon damaged and undamaged trees. Undamaged Pinus taeda trees recorded the highest phosphorus levels in April 2003 (0.13%). Moisture content was lowest in damaged Pinus patula trees in August 2003 (57%). Anecdotal evidence that baboon damage to pine trees on the Eastern Escarpment of Mpumalanga increases prior to the growing season is supported by the significant changes in inner bark tissue concentration. Nutrient translocation prior to needle fall alters inner bark nutrient concentration, as does moisture stress and demand for nutrients prior to cambial activity. Pine bark is easier to peel during periods of peak cambial activity. These factors are discussed as they may trigger baboon damage. Significantly higher inner bark tissue concentrations of sucrose (4.25 versus 2.61%), starch (4.75 versus 2.84%) and nitrogen (0.61 versus 0.49%) in Pinus taeda compared with Pinus patula, supports anecdotal evidence that Pinus taeda is preferentially damaged by baboons. Baboon damaged trees contained higher concentrations of zinc (30.4 versus 22.3 ppm) and calcium (0.26 versus 0.20%), and lower concentrations of sucrose (2.95 versus 3.91%) and starch (3.21 versus v 4.39%) than undamaged trees, which was attributed to resource allocation to wound response and not that baboons selected trees with higher concentrations of zinc or calcium. The variability of inner bark tissue concentration due to a number of factors highlights that baboon damage in pine plantations is not readily answered, and remains a complex problem. A literature review was undertaken of reported baboon damage occurrence and intensity of damage, following statements that baboon damage to pine plantations is rapidly escalating in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The extent and intensity of baboon damage from the first reported damage (1960’s) until current levels are documented. A comparison is made between Zimbabwe and South Africa where the baboon damage is viewed as a serious problem. The extent of baboon damage in Zimbabwe, expressed as the total percentage of area damaged by baboons as a function of the total area planted to pine for the period 2000-2004 has escalated from 10.8 to 13.3% despite harvesting activities removing damaged trees (Fergusson, 2004). The total area with reported baboon damage in Zimbabwe amounted to 5 317 hectares in 2004 (Fergusson, 2004). In South Africa baboon damage has increased markedly from the first reports of 300 hectares in 1980 (Bigalke, 1980) to 7 641 hectares in 2004. The average percentage of trees damaged in affected compartments is 20.4% with the percentage increasing from 17.2 to 23.6% from 2002-2004. Pinus taeda appears to be the most severely affected species with Pinus elliottii showing increasing levels of damage in many compartments in 2004. Quantifying the value lost by baboon damage to the industry requires reliable assessment methods that are cost effective to implement. Assessment methods need to take into account the position of the damage on the stem, and resultant saw log value that is lost. Assessment methods implemented in South Africa and Zimbabwe are described, and results given by method applied. A standard assessment method is required for comparisons to be made between areas vi with baboon damage. An investigation in Zimbabwe highlighted significant differences between standing tree volume estimations (4.98 – 7.59 m3/ha, with various methods), and actual volume losses (50.45 m3/ha) (Ngorima et. al., 2002). The associated Rand value loss determined by the South African assessment method in 2004 was in excess of 20 million Rand. This estimated loss in revenue does not include losses of incremental growth due to the damage, re-establishment costs, loss of thinning and clearfelling product revenue due to timber wastage, or losses experienced in down line processing at the saw mill. The extent of the baboon damage problem warrants proactive management, continued monitoring and investment into research in order to gain a better understanding of the problem. The increase in the extent of baboon damage from early documented figures is most alarming, showing that the baboon damage problem continues to grow.

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Pretoria, 2000. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed on July 17, 2006). Includes bibliographical references (p. 118-122).

Cedar, represented by Western redcedar (Thuja plicata) and Yellow Cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) was known as the “Tree of Life” to the Nuu-chah-nulth on Vancouver Island’s west coast, and most other groups of the Pacific Northwest. This thesis investigates the Culturally Modified Trees (CMTs), or more specifically Tapered Bark Strips (TBS), created through the extraction of cedar bark removed for all manner of material goods. CMTs are now the most common archaeological site type within British Columbia. Current regional chronologies have inherent biases that make interpretations difficult. The chronologies created through Archaeological Impact Assessments (AIAs) are weighted heavily to the contact period and the highest frequency of use corresponds with indigenous population collapse rather than peak. Investigations are made into the true distribution of existing CMT features. This thesis details the survey of 16 recent old growth cedar clearcuts which found extensive unrecorded CMT features that have recently been logged throughout the southern Nuu-chah-nulth study region. Half of all TBS scars in exposed stumps were found embedded within healed trees, otherwise invisible to archaeologists. Comparing all AIA report dates (surveyed prior to logging activity) with all post-impact assessments surveys it was found the latter contain a greater and older distribution of scarring events corresponding to high First Nations populations before the contact period. The study also compares CMT chronologies with local histories, investigates the antiquity of Northwest Coast CMTs and the indigenous management of cedar trees to maximize bark harvests. The findings of this research hint at the expanded extent of anthropogenic forests in the Northwest Coast, the inadequate recording and heritage protections of CMTs, and what it all means for Aboriginal Land Rights in British Columbia. / Graduate / 0324 0740 0329 / kinze.earnshaw@gmail.com

Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Fortführung eines Projektes dar, in dem kausale Zusammenhänge zwischen Umweltfaktoren und dem Auftreten von Winterneuschälschäden an Fichte durch Rotwild im Harz und im Solling untersucht werden sollten. Ergänzt um die Analyse und detaillierte Darstellung der Datengrundlage der beiden Untersuchungsgebiete bedient sich diese Arbeit zunächst einfacher statistischer Tests zur Quantifizierung der während drei Inventurjahren mittels Klumpenstichprobe ermittelten Schälschäden. Hierbei werden die Werte mit Jagdstrecken- und Forsteinrichtungsdaten sowie Geländeparametern univariat assoziiert und die jeweiligen Chancenverhältnisse der Parameterklassen ausgewiesen. Im Anschluss werden die potentiellen Einflussfaktoren dann mittels binärer logistischer Regressionen sowie durch generalisierte lineare Modelle auf ihren Effektwert als erklärende Variable in multivariaten Modellen hin untersucht. Für die Durchführung dieser Untersuchung werden zu Beginn entsprechende Arbeitshypothesen aufgestellt. Die Berechnung der Chancenverhältnisse zeigt einen starken Zusammenhang zwischen vorangegangener Schäle und dem Auftreten neuer Winterschäle am Stichprobenpunkt. Ebenso lassen sich erhöhte Jagdstreckenergebnisse mit vermehrter Neuschäle assoziieren. Während junge Bestände häufiger Schälschäden aufweisen als ältere Bestände, lassen sich in Bezug auf die untersuchten Geländeausprägungen kaum eindeutige Aussagen treffen. Die Ergebnisse der Regressionsmodelle variieren in ihrem Niveau der Modellanpassung und des Erklärungspotentials und bleiben hinsichtlich ihrer Aussagekraft im Solling gegenüber dem Harz zurück. Je nach Inventurjahr und Gebiet werden unterschiedliche Variablen als Effektparameter ausgewiesenen. Zudem widersprechen sie einander zum Teil in ihrer Effektrichtung. Auch das Vorhandensein von Altschälvorkommen wird nicht in allen Modellen als erklärende Variable hinzugezogen. Die generalisierten linearen Modelle im Harz weisen für die reliefbasierten Parameter wiederkehrende Effekte. Ungeachtet der variierenden Effektstärke bleibt deren Ausprägung über die gesamte Untersuchungsreihe hinweg gleich. So lassen sich mit zunehmender Hangneigung eine Erhöhung und in Abhängigkeit von der Hangrichtung zumindest Unterschiede des Schälrisikos feststellen. Während das Schälrisiko mit zunehmender Exponiertheit des Stichprobenpunktes im Gelände sinkt, weisen Standorte mit einem höheren Strahlungspotential im Januar auch höhere Schälschädigungsraten auf. Die in dieser Arbeit erlangten Ergebnisse korrespondieren zum Teil mit den Erfahrungen anderer Autoren, zeigen jedoch auch Unterschiede zu deren Ergebnissen. Die widersprüchlichen Effektwerte der eigenen Untersuchungen lassen dabei grundsätzliche Zweifel an der Zuverlässigkeit der durch multivariate Modelle ausgewiesenen kausalen Zusammenhänge aufkommen. Neben einem geeigneten Stichprobendesign werden insbesondere auch eine zielgerichtete Parameterauswahl und -erhebung als entscheidende Faktoren für die spätere statistische Analyse hervorgehoben. Als Voraussetzung für die Schaffung eindeutig interpretierbarer Ergebnisse wird nachfolgenden Arbeiten von der Verschneidung ursprünglich nicht für die Untersuchung bestimmter Daten abgeraten und stattdessen eine studienabhängige Erhebung empfohlen.