Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death amongst women ages 20 to 59. Despite advancements in cancer therapies, more research is necessary to improve the diagnoses and treatment of several types of breast cancer. Paclitaxel (Taxol) is a commonly utilized anti-cancer drug for various types of solid tumors. However, the molecular mechanism utilized by paclitaxel to induce cell death is still elusive. Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that the pro-apoptotic BCL-2 family protein, BAK (BCL-2 homologous antagonist/killer) plays an important role in paclitaxel-induced cell death. In untreated breast cancer cells, BAK is associated with the anti-apoptotic BCL-2 family protein MCL-1 (myeloid leukemia cell differentiation protein). BAK is activated with paclitaxel treatment in concert with loss of MCL-1 expression. In addition, it has been shown that the pro-apoptotic BH3-only BCL-2 family protein Noxa, specifically interacts with MCL-1 to inactivate MCL-1 function. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that modulation of Noxa/MCL-1 axis could mimic paclitaxel-induced cell death. Here, we found that down-regulation of MCL-1 induced cell death in all breast cancer cell lines that we tested, but not in a non-transformed breast epithelial cell line. In contrast, Noxa overexpression induced MCL-1 degradation and cell death in some cell lines (Noxa-sensitive), while in others Noxa overexpression neither changed MCL-1 levels nor induced cell death (Noxa-resistant). Noxa strongly interacted with MCL-1 in the Noxa-sensitive cell line, but not in the Noxa-resistant cell line. Based on these findings, the overexpression of Noxa might have two different mechanistic effects on MCL-1 levels in the breast cancer cell lines (induction of MCL-1 degradation or no effect on MCL-1). In Noxa-sensitive cells, the finding could be used as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of breast cancer.

Glucocorticoids (GC) are common components of many chemotherapeutic regimens for lymphoid malignancies. GC-induced apoptosis involves an intrinsic BCL-2 family-regulated pathway. It has been shown that BIM (BCL-2 interacting mediator of cell death), a BH3-only pro-apoptotic protein, is up-regulated by dexamethasone (Dex) treatment in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells. Furthermore, BIM is inactivated by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-mediated phosphorylation. We therefore hypothesized co-treatment with Dex and MEK/ERK inhibitors would promote apoptosis in ALL cells through BIM up-regulation and activation. We show here that a MEK inhibitor, PD184352 synergistically enhances Dex lethality in CCRF-CEM (T-ALL) cells. Co-treatment with Dex and PD184352 results in BIM accumulation. Down-regulation of BIM by short-hairpin RNA in CCRF-CEM cells suppressed apoptosis by Dex/PD184352 co-treatment. In contrast, another BH3-only protein, BAD is dispensable. Thus, BIM is a critical molecule in this regimen, and targeting BIM by drugs combination could be effective on ALL and possibly other malignancies.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Thèse numérisée par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

L’infarctus du myocarde (IDM) est une cause majeure de mortalité dans le monde. La stratégie thérapeutique actuelle repose sur la reperfusion précoce du myocarde qui contribue largement à l’amélioration du pronostic des malades. Les investigations menées chez des modèles d’ischémie/reperfusion (I/R) cardiaque ont montré que l’apoptose des cardiomyocytes était contrôlée en partie par les protéines de type Bcl-2. La production de radicaux libres (RL), en particulier par la nicotinamide adénine dinucléotide phosphate (NADPH) oxydase, contribue aussi à l’altération de la fonction cardiaque. Récemment, les effets observés de l’érythropoïétine (Epo) sur l’I/R, sont principalement liés à ses effets anti-apoptotiques, anti-inflammatoires et à son rôle dans l’angiogénèse et le remodelage vasculaire. Ces propriétés suggèrent le potentiel de l’Epo dans la cardioprotection suite à un IDM. Dès lors, les objectifs de cette thèse ont été : 1) de confirmer les effets cardioprotecteurs d’un analogue de l’Epo, la darbepoétine-a (DA), chez un modèle d’I/R chez le rat; 2) d’étudier les voies de signalisation impliquées dans ses effets anti-apoptotiques et ; 3) de caractériser les effets antioxydants de la DA médiée par l’hème-oxygénase-1 (HO-1), et ; d’étudier le rôle de la NADPH oxydase. Dans la 1ère étude, le traitement par DA a permis de diminuer significativement la taille de l’infarctus, la production de RL et l’apoptose. La DA a activé la voie des protéines Jak2/Akt, augmenté l’expression des protéines P-Bad et P-GSK3ß et anti-apoptotiques, Bcl-2 et Bcl-xL. Ces mêmes effets bénéfiques ont été confirmés à plus long terme avec la réduction des lésions fibrotiques et l’augmentation du nombre da capillaires sanguins, suggérant une meilleure perfusion du ventricule gauche. La seconde étude, a confirmé les effets cardioprotecteurs de la DA. Parallèlement, la DA a induit l’expression et l’activité de l’HO-1 et régulé l’expression des sous-unités p47phox et Rac1 nécessaires à l’activation de la NADPH oxydase. Ces résultats sont concordants avec la baisse de la production des RL observés dans le groupe DA. Les effets bénéfiques de la DA ont été annihilés en présence de ZnPP, inhibiteur de l’HO-1. Des essais cliniques sont actuellement en cours pour démontrer que les bénéfices observés chez l’animal, peuvent être retrouvés chez l’homme. / Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of mortality in industrialized countries. Loss of cardiomyocytes via apoptosis is believed to contribute to the continuous decline of the ventricular function in heart failure. Several investigations revealed that following ischemia-reperfusion (I/R), cardiomyocytes apoptosis is controlled, at least, by the Bcl-2 proteins family members. The excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, through NADPH oxidase, contributes also to cellular damages and death. Recently, erythropoietin (EPO), a hematopoietic cytokine, has been shown to protect heart exposed to ischemia or ischemia-reperfusion, limiting infarct size and cardiac remodeling. However, to date the precise cellular mechanism of DA-induced cardioprotection remains incompletely understood. Thus, the aims of this work were 1) to assess the short and long term cardioprotective effects of darbepoetin-a (DA), an Epo analog, in an in vivo rat model of I/R ; 2) to investigate the signaling pathway through which DA potentially limits apoptosis and ; 3) to elucidate whether its cardioprotective effect, and more particularly its antioxidative effect, is linked to an HO-1-dependent inhibition of the NADPH activity. In the first study, left ventricle infarct size (LV) was smaller than that in the control rats, in agreement with echocardiographics parameters. DA-treatment activated the JAK2/Akt signaling pathway, lowered cleaved caspase-3 and increased both P-Bad and P-GSK-3ß proteins. This was consistent with the decrease of ROS production and the lowered binding of Bad to Bcl-xL and Bcl-. Similarly, in long term study, histology alterations implicated lower LV cardiac fibrosis and greater capillary density; furthermore both Bcl-xL and Bcl-2 were upregulated. In the second study, both LVSF and LVEF were higher versus control and DA+ZnPP, a heme-oxygenase-1 (HO-1) inhibitor, matching with the decreased LV infarct size in DA rats. DA induced HO-1 and down regulated the expression of p47phox and the activation of Rac1, both regulatory subunits of the NADPH-oxidase. This was consistent with the decrease of ROS production and these DA effects were inhibited by ZnPP. Further experiments in humans are now required to prove benefits effects of DA and to promote the use of EPO as therapeutics in heart infarction.

BAD (Bcl-2 antagonist of cell death, Bcl-2 associated death promoter) is a pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 protein family that is regulated by phosphorylation in response to survival factors. Although much attention has been devoted to the identification of phosphorylation sites in murine BAD (mBAD), little data are available with respect to phosphorylation of human BAD (hBAD) protein. In this work, we investigated the quantitative contribution of BAD targeting kinases in phosphorylating serines 75, 99 and 118 of hBAD (Chapter 3.1). Our results indicate that RAF kinases phosphorylate hBAD in vivo at these established serine residues. RAF-induced phosphorylation of hBAD was not prevented by MEK inhibitors but could be reduced to control levels by use of the RAF inhibitor Sorafenib (BAY 43-9006). Consistently, expression of active RAF suppressed apoptosis induced by hBAD and the inhibition of colony formation caused by hBAD could be prevented by RAF. In addition, using surface plasmon resonance technique we analyzed the direct consequences of hBAD phosphorylation by RAF with respect to complex formation of BAD with 14-3-3 proteins and Bcl-XL. Phosphorylation of hBAD by active RAF promotes 14-3-3 protein association, whereby the phosphoserine 99 represents the major binding site. Furthermore, we demonstrate in this work that hBAD forms channels in planar bilayer membranes in vitro. This pore-forming capacity is dependent on phosphorylation status and interaction with 14-3-3 proteins. Additionally, we show that hBAD pores possess a funnel-shaped geometry that can be entered by ions and non-charged molecules up to 200 Da (Chapter 3.2). Since both lipid binding domains of hBAD (LBD1 and LBD2) are located within the C-terminal region, we investigated this part of the protein with respect to its structural properties (Chapter 3.3). Our results demonstrate that the C-terminus of hBAD possesses an ordered β-sheet structure in aqueous solution that adopts helical disposition upon interaction with lipid membranes. Additionally, we show that the interaction of the C-terminal segment of hBAD with the BH3 domain results in the formation of permanently open pores, whereby the phosphorylation of serine 118 proved to be necessary for effective pore-formation. In contrast, phosphorylation of serine 99 in combination with 14-3-3 association suppresses formation of channels. These results indicate that the C-terminal part of hBAD controls hBAD function by structural transitions, lipid binding and phosphorylation. Using mass spectrometry we identified in this work, besides the established in vivo phosphorylation sites at serines 75, 99 and 118, several novel hBAD phosphorylation sites (serines 25, 32/34, 97, 124 and 134, Chapter 3.1). To further analyze the regulation of hBAD function, we investigated the role of these newly identified phosphorylation sites on BAD-mediated apoptosis. We found that in contrast to the N-terminal phosphorylation sites, the C-terminal serines 124 and 134 act in an anti-apoptotic manner (Chapter 3.4). Our results further indicate that RAF kinases and PAK1 effectively phosphorylate BAD at serine 134. Notably, in the presence of wild type hBAD, co-expression of survival kinases, such as RAF and PAK1, leads to a strongly increased proliferation, whereas substitution of serine 134 by alanine abolishes this process. Furthermore, we identified hBAD serine 134 to be strongly involved in survival signaling in B-RAF-V600E containing tumor cells and found phosphorylation of this residue to be crucial for efficient proliferation in these cells. Collectively, our findings provide new insights into the regulation of hBAD function by phosphorylation and its role in cancer signaling. / BAD (Bcl-2 antagonist of cell death, Bcl-2 associated death promoter) ist ein pro-apoptotisches Mitglied der Bcl-2 Proteinfamilie und wird in Abhängigkeit von Wachstumsfaktoren durch Phosphorylierung reguliert. Obwohl der Identifizierung von Phosphorylierungsstellen in murinem BAD (mBAD) in den vergangenen Jahren viel Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet wurde, ist die Phosphorylierung des humanen BAD (hBAD) Proteins kaum charakterisiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird der quantitative Beitrag unterschiedlicher Kinasen in Bezug auf die Phosphorylierung der etablierten Phosphorylierungsstellen Serin 75, 99 und 118 von hBAD dargestellt (Kapitel 3.1). Unsere Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass RAF-Kinasen hBAD in vivo an diesen etablierten Stellen phosphorylieren. Die RAF-bedingte Phosphorylierung konnte nicht durch MEK-Inhibitoren beeinflusst werden, dagegen bewirkte die Gabe des RAF-Inhibitors Sorafenib (BAY 43-9006) eine Reduktion der Phosphorylierung auf das Niveau der Kontrollproben. Übereinstimmend konnte durch die Expression von aktiven RAF-Kinasen die BAD-induzierte Apoptose sowie die BAD-bedingte Inhibierung der Koloniebildung unterdrückt werden. Zusätzlich verwendeten wir Oberflächen-Plasmon-Resonanz-Spektroskopie um die Auswirkungen der RAF-bedingten BAD-Phosphorylierung auf die Komplexbildung von hBAD mit 14-3-3-Proteinen und Bcl-XL zu analysieren. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die Phosphorylierung von hBAD durch aktive RAF-Kinasen die Assoziierung von 14-3-3 begünstigt, wobei Phosphoserin 99 die Hauptbindungsstelle darstellt. Weiterhin gelang der Nachweis, dass hBAD in vitro Poren in Lipid-Doppelschicht-Membranen bilden kann. Wir wiesen nach, dass die Fähigkeit von hBAD Poren zu bilden phosphorylierungsabhängig ist und durch die Interaktion mit 14-3-3-Proteinen beeinflusst wird. Außerdem demonstrieren wir in dieser Arbeit, dass die BAD-Poren eine zylinderförmige Geometrie aufweisen und sowohl für Ionen als auch für ungeladene Moleküle mit einer Größe von bis zu 200 Da zugänglich sind (Kapitel 3.2). Da beide Lipid-Bindungsstellen (LBD1 und LBD2) am C-Terminus des hBAD lokalisiert sind, charakterisierten wir des Weiteren diesen Teil des Proteins in Hinblick auf seinen strukturellen Aufbau (Kapitel 3.3). Unsere Ergebnisse demonstrieren, dass der hBAD-C-Terminus in wässriger Lösung eine geordnete β-Faltblattstruktur aufweist und bei Eintritt in eine Lipidumgebung helikale Elemente ausbildet. Zusätzlich zeigen wir in dieser Arbeit, dass die Interaktion des C-terminalen hBAD-Segments mit der BH3-Domäne zur Ausbildung von permanent offenen Poren führt, wobei die Phosphorylierung an Serin 118 eine Notwendigkeit für effektive Porenbildung darstellt. In Gegensatz dazu bewirkte die Phosphorylierung von Serin 99 in Kombination mit der Assoziierung von 14-3-3-Protein eine Inhibierung der Porenbildung. Diese Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass der C-terminale Teil von hBAD durch strukturelle Veränderungen, Lipidbindung und Phosphorylierung entscheidend die Funktion von hBAD reguliert. Mit Hilfe von Massenspektroskopie konnten wir im Rahmen dieser Arbeit, zusätzlich zu den etablierten Phosphorylierungsstellen Serin 75, 99 und 118, einige neue in vivo Phosphorylierungsstellen von hBAD identifizieren (Serin 25, 32/34, 97, 124 und 134, Kapitel 3.1). Um die Regulierung der Funktion von hBAD weiter zu analysieren, untersuchten wir die Rolle dieser neu identifizierten Phosphorylierungsstellen in Bezug auf die BAD-induzierte Apoptose (Kapitel 3.4). Wir fanden heraus, dass im Gegensatz zu den N-terminalen Phosphorylierungsstellen, die Phosphorylierungsstellen am C-Terminus an der Apoptoseregulation mitwirken. Weiterhin weisen unsere Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass RAF-Kinasen, neben PAK1, an der Phosphorylierung von Serin 134 von hBAD beteiligt sind. Interessanterweise bewirkte die Co-Expression von RAF oder PAK1 mit dem wildtypischen hBAD eine erhebliche Verstärkung der Zellproliferation. Diese verstärkte Proliferation konnte durch einen Serin-zu-Alanin-Austausch in hBAD an der Stelle 134 vollständig verhindert werden. Weiterhin entdeckten wir, dass die Phosphorylierung dieser Stelle in B-RAF-V600E enthaltenden Tumorzellen bei der Regulation der Zellproliferation mitwirkt und für eine effiziente Proliferation entscheidend ist. Zusammenfassend gewähren unsere Ergebnisse neue Einblicke in die Regulierung der Funktion von hBAD durch Phosphorylierung sowie in die Rolle von hBAD bei der Krebsentwicklung.

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Apoptosis is a cell death pathway that regulates tissue homeostasis, and is often altered in oncogenesis. Autophagy is a lysosome degradation pathway that mediates cellular adaptation in response to stresses. Altered autophagy pathways are proposed to be associated with pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and oncogenesis. The goal of this work is to study the complex link between apoptosis and autophagy pathways, and their possible roles in the development of cancer. Using transgenic mice models, we found that impaired apoptosis by overexpression of a dominant negative form of Caspase-9 (Casp9DN) failed to accelerate T-cell lymphoma either by itself or in tumor-prone Bax overexpressing transgenic mice. Additionally, heterozygous disruption of Beclin 1, a central upstream autophagy regulator, failed to promote T-cell lymphoma in either Casp9DN or tumor-prone Bax overexpressing transgenic mice. However, caspase inhibition enhanced a unique form of selective mitochondrial autophagy, referred to as mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP)-induced mitophagy. Parkin, a protein mutated in early-onset Parkinson's disease, mediates mitophagy following protonophore (CCCP) treatment, suggesting that Parkin may also play a role in MOMP-induced mitophagy. Thus, two different types of mitochondrial stresses, MOMP and CCCP, cause mitochondrial depolarization and induce mitophagy. We therefore examined if there is a mechanistic link between two mitophagy pathways. Focusing on the roles of autophagy and apoptosis regulators using isogenic hematopoietic cell lines, our studies demonstrate that MOMP-induced mitophagy is dependent upon Bcl-2 family members, but independent of Parkin or ULK1 (an autophagy regulator). In contrast, CCCP-induced mitophagy is dependent upon Parkin and ULK1, but independent of Bcl-2 family members. However, we found that both pathways ultimately result in the following properties: reduced mitochondrial respiration rate, altered cellular metabolism, and high sensitivity to 2-DG (an inhibitor of glycolysis). Interestingly, 2-DG induced cell death in cells following Parkin-dependent mitophagy is independent of Bcl-2 and Bax/Bak. Overall, the work in this dissertation demonstrates that the two different mitochondrial stresses, MOMP and protonophore (CCCP) treatment, lead to two mechanistically distinct mitophagy pathways, but both alter mitochondrial respiration and cellular metabolism.

Prostate cancer is the second most common cancer among men in the United States. While treatments for prostate cancer exist, none are curative. As a solid tumor, prostate cancer can grow beyond the diffusion limits of oxygen, thereby resulting in a hypoxic environment. While hypoxia can cause death to a variety of cell types, tumor cells can develop resistance to hypoxia and survive under minimal oxygen conditions. Hypoxia in tumor cells has also been associated with poor prognosis, increased metastasis, and decreased efficacy of chemotherapy. BNIP3, a BH-3 only proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member, has been shown to play an important role in cell death under hypoxic conditions in a variety of cell types. In normoxia, BNIP3 shows little to no expression in both cardiomyocytes and many cancer cell types, but is then upregulated under hypoxic conditions. Previous work in our laboratory provides evidence that hypoxia alone, as well as the concomitant increase in BNIP3 expression, cannot cause death of rat neonatal cardiomyocytes. Instead, our studies found that hypoxia with concomitant intracellular acidosis is required. Further studies indicated that BNIP3 is also necessary for hypoxia-acidosis associated cell death in cardiomyocytes. Our results in rat neonatal cardiomyocytes led us to hypothesize that cell death could be induced in hypoxic prostate cancer cells if concomitant acidosis could be induced. Additionally, our intention was to determine if BNIP3 was required for any prostate cancer cell death that may occur under hypoxia-acidosis conditions.