Throughout history, humans have sought to find the mechanisms that drive human behavior. The field of behavioral genetics has grown to fill this desire, as modern techniques for research are being used to find a link between genetics and human behavior. One of the most primal and historical human traits is our propensity for violence and antisocial behaviors. Over the years, adoption studies and twin method studies have shown us that these traits are heritable to a certain degree, but advances in scientific research have allowed researchers to identify specific genetic polymorphisms and genetic factors that are associated with certain behaviors. In courtrooms across America, these genetic claims are becoming a bigger part of the defense’s arguments, and it has become important to further explore the consequences and implications of using behavioral genetics in the courtroom. First, the validity of these claims was assessed by looking at two of the most common genetic defenses, XYY syndrome and Brunner’s syndrome (associated with a genetic abnormality in the MAOA gene). Since the first claims were made in court, it was found that the XYY claim simply does not hold its ground in the courtroom any longer. The Brunner’s syndrome claim is found to be valid for use in court, however careful review of the circumstances is still required. Changes in the interpretation of MAOA effects, its gene-environment interactions, and the inconsistencies in its use were examined to provide examples for why discretion is highly important. Upon establishing guidelines for validity, ethical issues were also considered, to identify the social implications of using these behavioral genetics data in the courtroom. Issues regarding determinism, labeling theory, racial tension, privacy, and discrimination are areas of daily life that are relevant to this increasing usage. Finally, a discussion is introduced on ways this data can be used outside the realm of criminal law, as it has also started to be used in civil law as well. The future of behavioral genetics research and the possibility of bringing neuroscience to the courtrooms are areas of discussion that show the need for the courts to understand the changing nature of defenses. In the end, this paper concluded that some key points must be achieved before use of behavioral genetics is as fair and ethical as possible. Unbiased education of judges and jury members is crucial before allowing the defense to present their interpretation of any genetic findings. More standards need to be in place to prevent the ethical dilemmas that arise. Courts must work towards standardizing approval for genetic claims to be made in court such that all defendants get a fair trial. In the end, an outright ban on the use of behavioral genetics in the courtroom would be irresponsible given the validity and importance of the claims. However its use must be carefully scrutinized, and the researchers, courts, and policy makers must work towards eliminating bias and the ethical concerns that arise, as well as carefully moving forward with research in the future.

There is a growing body of evidence that normal nervous system activity requires signals from resident microbes. We have yet to discover the mechanisms by which the microbiota influence brain function. However, we know that the enteric nervous system (ENS) serves as an important interface between the developing host and its microbiota. In this dissertation I will introduce a novel computer-assisted method for ENS characterization and a novel, incredibly specific mechanism of host-microbe interactions. With new ENS characterization method I developed, it will be possible to better understand the role of the ENS during development, by more rapidly and algorithmically assessing ENS phenotypes. Furthermore, my discovery of a single microbially-sourced protein that influences vertebrate host prey capture behavior and visual system development, will provide a new appreciation for the role resident microbes, both in model organisms and in ourselves. By both establishing a new, less biased, approach to image analysis and describing a surprising new regulatory host-microbe interaction, the work I describe in this dissertation should provide the foundation for an explosion of exciting discoveries in the near future.

Parenting behaviors and a variety of behavioral problems in children covary. The current study first aimed to examine how and why parenting and child behavioral problems are linked in middle childhood. In particular, a longitudinal design (1364 children assessed from 54 months to 5th grade) was used to examine whether the developmental link between parenting and child behavioral problems were reciprocal. A twin design (131 pairs of monozygotic and 173 pairs of dizygotic twins assessed from 6 to 8 years of age on average) was used to examine the underlying genetic and nongenetic etiology of this link. In addition, using these two samples, the current study also aimed to examine whether parental attributes, including negative affect, executive function, and social cognitive factors, modulate the link between parenting and child behavioral problems. Results across these two studies suggested that parenting and child behavioral problems mutually influenced the development of each other over time, potentially through both evocative and passive gene-environment correlation processes and environmental transmissions. In addition, maternal dispositional anger modulated the effects of child behavioral problems on changes in maternal parenting quality over time. Finally, implications of the current study were also discussed. / Ph. D.

Isogenic, or inbred, mouse strains are currently the experimental subjects of choice in laboratory studies focused on genetics, pharmacology, and psychological issues. Understanding phenotypic differences in isogenic strains is important in order to interpret experimental results obtained from inbred mouse strains. Four commonly used inbred strains, C57BL/6NHsd (C57), DBA/2NHsd (DBA), 129S2/SvHsd (129), and Balb/cAnHsd (Balb/c), are investigated in this study using four different behavioral tasks that measure locomotor activity and cognitive behavior (Morris Water Maze (MWM), T-maze, and operant autoshaping procedures). In the locomotor activity task 129 mice showed significantly less horizontal ambulation than any other strain, while differences in rearing was seen between all strains, with C57 mice producing the most, and 129 showing the least rearing. Thigmotaxia was seen the most in the 129 strain, less so with the Balb/c and DBA strains, and the least in the C57 mice. In the MWM learning across strains was noted but there was no difference between the strains. In the T-maze the Balb/c strain showed the shortest latency to enter an arm, while the 129 strain showed the longest. As expected they also showed the lowest accuracy and the highest percent time-outs compared to all the other strains. In the autoshaping procedure little difference between the strains was observed. Balb/c mice trended graphically towards higher rates however there was no difference with regard to number of contingent responses or number per strain to reach a criterion of 10 or more contingent reinforcers. Finally, locomotor activity was measured again at the end of the study. The activity results were still similar, although the C57 strain showed a decrease in horizontal ambulation as compared to DBA and Balb/c strains; however, the 129 strain still showed the least activity. These results indicate that there are significant differences in locomotor behavior and cognitive processes in these strains that should be considered when interpreting results from studies using these inbred mouse strains.

This study examined the role of birth complications, delinquent peers and siblings, and specific dopamine receptors on the development of externalizing behavior in children and adolescents, along with the role of heritability in aggression and delinquency. Specifically, it was hypothesized that increased birth complications, presence of specific dopamine receptor (DRD2 and DRD4) risk alleles, and delinquent peers or siblings would be related to increased externalizing behavior at follow-up. The sample consisted of 65 twin pairs, aged six to 16 (mean age = 9.06 years) who originally participated in the Southern Illinois Twins and Siblings Study (SITSS) at age five. Significant results were found for the stability of aggression from age five to follow-up and heritability of parent-rated aggression and delinquency measures was shown. Presence of delinquent peers or siblings was positively related to aggressive and delinquent behavior. Those with more delinquent peers and with the DRD2 risk allele were rated as more delinquent. In contrast, those without the DRD4 risk allele were also rated as more delinquent. Presence of birth complications was positively related to aggressive and delinquent behavior ratings by parents at follow-up. However, birth complications were negatively related to delinquency on youth-rated measures. Finally, those with fewer complications and more delinquent siblings engaged in more reported delinquent behavior. The present study provided important information concerning the effects of birth complications, delinquent peers and siblings, and specific dopamine receptors on the development of externalizing behavior in children and adolescents, along with the role of heritability in aggression and delinquency.

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This paper discusses the issue of depersonalization and the subjective need for objectification and provides a means of understanding and developing a possible solution. Through the basic observation of an overlap between Behavioral Genetics, Neuroscience, Philosophy, Psychology, Physiognomy, the visual language and the artistic practice, one can begin to take note of the affects of our environments on an individualistic level. Through creative practice and the use of the visual language, one may develop an individualistic form of therapy. In recent years we have drifted away from the science of visual language and the basic aesthetic experience. The visual language and the basic aesthetic experience allow the depersonalized individual to engage in conversation and observation through an object of the visual language to the biological inner self as person. Through this conversation one may find comfort in the acknowledgment of the biological inner self as person from the other as person in hopes to subdue the subjective need for objectification. One may also gain a better understanding of the individualistic correlation between one's environment and one's biological inner self as person.

La démonstration de la participation des gènes dans la formation des comportements humains est l’une des plus grandes découvertes récentes pour les sciences humaines. La nécessité de trouver une raison génétique et héréditaire comme cause des comportements humains a conduit à l’émergence d’une nouvelle branche de la génétique scientifique baptisée « Génétique du Comportement ». La recherche en génétique du comportement ne limite pas à la simple démonstration de l’importance des facteurs génétiques dans l’étude du comportement, et permet de poser la question de l’action des gènes et des facteurs environnementaux sur le comportement. Pour les sciences humaines, les sciences sociales et la psychologie, l’influence des gènes sur les activités mentales, comportementales et cérébrales de l’homme est un objet d’étude. Ainsi, depuis l’émergence de la génétique du comportement, il est devenu plus facile d’expliquer la manifestation des comportements humains et des maladies mentales. Le domaine très étendu de la génétique du comportement a engendré une multitude de préoccupations morales et sociales ainsi que juridiques. Bien que nombre de ces préoccupations ne soient pas spécifiques à la génétique du comportement, ou même à la génétique, il y a toujours de bonnes raisons d'être conscients d'eux. Les implications politiques d'une base génétique pour les comportements sont très répandues et s’étendent au-delà de la clinique dans les domaines socialement importants de l'éducation, la justice pénale, la procréation et le travail. La nouveauté et le développement considérable de ce nouveau domaine de la génétique expliquent en partie pourquoi les spécialistes de l’éthique sont peu au fait des questions éthiques et juridiques y afférant, notamment en termes de conséquences et de recherches. Cela démontre l’existence de failles profondes, tant au niveau national et international, que dans la protection des participants vulnérables aux examens et aux recherches en génétique comportementale. Le but dans cette thèse est de vérifier juridiquement les risques de discrimination et de stigmatisation, les défis juridiques et les encadrements nécessaires dans le champ d’application des recherches génétiques comportementales à l’égard du public, des droits fondamentaux des sujets concernés et des participants vulnérables ayant des maladies mentales ou une tendance aux comportements qualifiés d’ « antisociaux ». / Demonstrating the involvement of genes in the formation of human behavior is one of the greatest recent discoveries in the human sciences. The need to find a genetic and hereditary reason for human behavior led to the emergence of a new branch of scientific genetics called "Behavioral Genetics". Behavioral genetic research does not limit the simple demonstration of the importance of genetic factors in the study of behavior, and allows asking this question how genes and environmental factors have an effect on behavior. Recently, in the human sciences and psychology, the influence of genes on human mental, behavioral and cerebral activities is widely studied. The extensive field of behavioral genetics has engendered a multitude of moral and social concerns as well as legal issues almost since its inception. Although many of these concerns are not the same as behavioral genetics, or even genetics, there are always good reasons to be aware of them. The political implications of a genetic basis for behaviors are widespread and extend beyond the clinic into areas that are socially important for education, criminal justice, procreation and ultimately for the upbringing of children. The novelty and considerable development of this new area of genetics partly explains why ethics specialists have the right to ignore the ethical and legal issues relating to them, particularly in terms of consequences and research. This demonstrates the existence of profound loopholes, both nationally and internationally, and in the protection of vulnerable participants in behavioral genetics testing and research. The purpose of this thesis is to legally verify the risks of discrimination and stigmatization, legal challenges and frameworks as well as the scope of behavioral genetic research with regard to the public, the fundamental rights of the subjects concerned and the vulnerable participants.

abstract: A variety of studies have shown that the tendency toward nicotine dependence has a genetic component. The work described in this thesis addresses three separate questions: i) are there unidentified SNPs in the nicotinic receptors or other genes that contribute to the risk for nicotine dependence; ii) is there evidence of ongoing selection at nicotinic receptor loci; and, iii) since nicotine dependence is unlikely to be the phenotype undergoing selection, is a positive effect on memory or cognition the selected phenotype. I first undertook a genome –wide association scan of imputed data using samples from the Collaborative Study of the Genetics of Nicotine Dependence (COGEND). A novel association was found between nicotine dependence and SNPs at 13q31. The genes at this newly associated locus on chromosome 13 encode a group of micro-RNAs and a member of the glypican gene family. These are among the first findings to implicate a non-candidate gene in risk for nicotine dependence. I applied several complimentary methods to sequence data from the 1000 Genomes Project to test for evidence of selection at the nicotinic receptor loci. I found strong evidence for selection for alleles in the nicotinic receptor cluster on chromosome 8 that confer risk of nicotine dependence. I then used the dataset from the Collaborative Studies on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA) and looked for an association between neuropsychological phenotypes and SNPs conferring risk of nicotine dependence. One SNP passed multiple test correction for association with WAIS digit symbol score. This SNP is not itself associated with nicotine dependence but is in reasonable (r 2 = 0.75) LD with SNPs that are associated with nicotine dependence. These data suggest at best, a weak correlation between nicotine dependence and any of the tested cognitive phenotypes. Given the reproducible finding of an inverse relationship between SNPs associated with risk for nicotine dependence and cocaine dependence, I hypothesize that the apparently detrimental phenotype of nicotine dependence may confer decreased risk for cocaine dependence. As cocaine use impairs the positive rewards associated with social interactions, reducing the risk of cocaine addiction may be beneficial to both the individual and the group. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Anthropology 2014

Pathological gambling and substance use disorders are highly prevalent and comorbid among veteran populations. These disorders also share genetic influences, although the underlying constructs and magnitude of their influence remain unclear. This project utilized the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) as a framework for modeling the underlying dimensions of psychopathology as latent factors and modeled genetic and environmental influences on substance use disorders and pathological gambling. Study 1 examined the structure of psychopathology for 15 common mental disorders in a sample of Vietnam-era veteran twins from the Harvard Drug Study (nMZ = 3,748 and nDZ = 2,996) to determine the appropriate location for pathological gambling within the HiTOP framework. The best fitting model included internalizing and externalizing spectra and an illicit substance use subfactor. Pathological gambling (loading = .30) loaded onto the externalizing spectrum with legal substance use, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, and a subfactor that subsumed all six illicit substance use disorders. The best fitting model in Study 1 did not support the existence of a ‘p’ factor underlying all psychopathology. In Study 2, genetic and environmental components were modeled for the 15 disorders and 3 latent factors modeled in Study 1. Additive genetics explained from 10% (generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder) to 49% (nicotine use) of the variance in specific disorders and from 24% (internalizing) to 46% (externalizing) of the variance of latent factors. Only cocaine use and conduct disorder demonstrated significant variance attributable to shared environment, the entirety of which occurred at the disorder-specific level. Only 9% of the genetic variance associated with alcohol use was shared across disorders, whereas 100% of genetic variance in cocaine and hallucinogen use was shared with latent factors. In total, 12% of the variance in risk for pathological gambling was associated with additive genetics, and 13% of that variance was shared via the externalizing spectrum. Findings highlight shared risk among illicit substance use disorders and among other disorders on the externalizing spectrum. These findings suggest externalizing and illicit substance use as transdiagnostic targets for treatments aimed at individuals with comorbid substance use disorders, pathological gambling, and other externalizing disorders.