<p>The DNA of a cell operates as its blueprint, providing coded information for the production of the RNA and proteins that allow the cell to function. Cells can face a myriad of insults to their genomic integrity during their lifetimes, from simple errors during growth and division to reactive oxygen species to chemotherapeutic reagents. To deal with these mutagenic insults and avoid passing them on to progeny, cells are equipped with multiple defenses. Checkpoints can sense problems and halt a cell’s progression through the cell cycle in order to allow repairs. More drastically, cells can also prevent passing on mutations to progeny by triggering apoptosis, or programmed cell death. This work will present two separate discoveries regarding the regulation of DNA damage-induced apoptosis and the regulation of the spindle checkpoint.</p><p> The protease caspase-2 has previously been shown to be an important regulator of DNA damage-induced apoptosis. In unstressed cells caspase-2 is present as an inactive monomer, but upon sensing a stress caspase-2 dimerizes and becomes catalytically active. The mechanisms that regulate this dimerization are poorly understood. The first research chapter details our development of a novel method to study dimerized caspase-2, which in turn identified TRAF2 as a direct activator of caspase-2. Specifically, we utilized the Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation technique, wherein complementary halves of the Venus fluorophore are fused to caspase-2: when caspase-2 dimerizes, the non-fluorescent halves fold into a functional Venus fluorophore. We combined this technique with a Venus-specific immunoprecipitation that allowed the purification of caspase-2 dimers. Characterization of the caspase-2 dimer interactome by MS/MS identified several members of the TNF Receptor Associated Factor (TRAF) family, specifically TRAF1, 2, and 3. Knockdown studies revealed that TRAF2 plays a primary role in promoting caspase-2 dimerization and downstream apoptosis in response to DNA damage. Identification of a TRAF Interacting Motif (TIM) on caspase-2 indicates that TRAF2 directly acts on caspase-2 to induce its activation. TRAF2 is known to act as an E3 ubiquitin ligase as well as a scaffold for other E3 ubiquitin ligases. Indeed, we identified three lysine residues in the caspase-2 prodomain (K15, K152, and K153) important for its ubiquitination and complex formation. Together these results revealed a novel role for TRAF2 as a direct activator of caspase-2 apoptosis triggered by DNA damage.</p><p> During mitosis, when the cell prepares to divide, great care is taken to ensure that the chromosomes are properly segregated between the two daughter cells by the mitotic spindle. This is primarily accomplished through the spindle checkpoint, which becomes activated when the mitotic spindle is not properly attached to each chromosome’s kinetochore. When activated, the primary effector of the spindle checkpoint, the mitotic checkpoint complex (MCC), inhibits the anaphase-promoting complex (APC/C) by binding to the APC/C co-activator, CDC20. This prevents the APC/C from targeting critical pro-mitotic proteins, like cyclin B and securin, to promote mitotic exit. Although the function of the MCC is well understood, its regulation is not, especially in regard to protein phosphatases To investigate this, we activated the spindle checkpoint with microtubule inhibitors and then treated with a variety of phosphatase inhibitors, examining the effect on the MCC and APC/C. We found that two separate inhibitors, calyculin A and okadaic acid (1uM), were able to promote the dissociation of the MCC. This led to the activation of the APC/C, but the cells remained in mitosis as evidenced by high levels of Cdk1 activity and chromosome condensation. This is the first time that phosphatases have been shown to be essential to maintaining the MCC and an active spindle checkpoint.</p> / Dissertation

The largest class of cell surface receptors in mammalian genomes is the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) which are activated by a wide range of extracellular responses such as hormones, pheromones, odorants, and neurotransmitters. Drugs which have therapeutic effects on a wide range of diseases are act on GPCRs. In contrast to traditional idea, it is recently getting accepted that G-protein coupled receptors can form homo- and hetero-dimers and this interaction could have important role on maturation, internalization, function or/and pharmacology. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation technique (BiFC) / is an innovative approach based on the reassembly of protein fragments which directly report interactions. In our study we implemented this technique for detecting and visualizing the GPCR interactions in yeast cells. The enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fractionated into two fragments at genetic level which does not possess fluorescent function. The target proteins which are going to be tested in terms of interaction are modified with the non-functional fragments, to produce the fusion proteins. The interaction between two target proteins, in this study Ste2p receptors which are alpha pheromone receptors from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, enable the fragments to come in a close proximity and reassemble. After reassembly, EGFP regains its fluorescent function which provides a direct read-out for the detection of interaction. Further studies are required to determine subcellular localization of the interaction. Moreover, by using the fusion protein partners constructed in this study, effects of agonist/antagonist binding and post-translational modifications such as glycosylation and phosphorylation can be examined. Apart from all, optimized conditions for BiFC technique will guide for revealing new protein-protein interactions.

Parkinson’s disease is an incurable neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor deficits, owing to dopaminergic denervation in the nigrostriatal pathway. The abnormal formation of hallmark Lewy bodies underlies the disease process. The pre-synaptic protein alpha- synuclein (⍺-syn) has prion-like properties arising from its propensity to propagate, seed misfolding, and self-aggregate. Pathogenesis is postulated to arise in olfactory and enteric regions, exploiting connected neuronal pathways to ultimately propagate to the substantia nigra pars compacta. There is little known about the earliest stages of ⍺-syn aggregation and its prion-like propagation mechanisms. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation of ⍺-syn aggregates has allowed us to directly visualize aggregation in transgenic mice and mice transduced with an adeno-associated virus vector. Although our transgenic mice expressed BiSyn in a mosaic fashion that limited utility, we were successful in transducing neurons in the mouse striatum. This work has validated the AAV2/9-CMV-BiSyn approach as groundwork for future systematic studies.

No description available.

Comment le plan d’organisation d’un organisme est-il mis en place est une question centrale de la biologie du développement. Les séquençages complets de plusieurs génomes de métazoaires ont montré qu’un nombre restreint de molécules régulatrices soutiennent la diversité des plans d’organisation des animaux, suggérant que ces molécules sont utilisées de manière répétée dans des contextes différents. Cela soulève la question de la diversité d’action : comment ces molécules acquièrent-elle une diversité fonctionnelle ? De plus, la plupart des molécules régulatrices partagent des motifs (fonctionnels/structuraux) communs, soulevant la question de la spécificité : comment des molécules partageant des propriétés biochimiques similaires contrôlent-elles des programmes développementaux spécifiques ?Mon équipe d’accueil s’intéresse à ces questions en utilisant les facteurs de transcription Hox de la Drosophile comme paradigme d’étude.Durant ma thèse, j’ai développé trois lignes de recherches : (1) J’ai adapté la technique de complémentation bi-moléculaire de fluorescence (BiFC) de visualisation des interactions protéines-protéines à l’embryon de drosophile en développement.(2) J’ai employé la BiFC pour disséquer la formation des complexes Hox-protéines PBC. Mes résultats remettent en question le paradigme établit : (a) en soulignant la multiplicité des modes d’interaction Hox-PBC existants, (b) en démontrant que cette diversité peut être source de spécificité d’action.(3) La BiFC a ensuite été exploitée dans un crible par approche gènes candidats pour identifier de nouveaux partenaires des protéines Hox. / My current laboratory aims to tackle the issue of specificity and diversity of regulatory molecules, taking the Drosophila Hox transcription factors as a paradigm for the analysis. During my PhD, I developed three connected research lines.Project 1: Visualization of protein interactions in living Drosophila embryos by the BiFC assayOur results establish the general suitability of BiFC for revealing and studying protein interactions in their physiological context during the rapid course of Drosophila embryonic development.Project 2: Investigation of Hox/PBC complex formation in vivo using BiFC Our findings challenge the current paradigm of Hox/Pbx complex assembly: (a) highlighting the existence of alternative modes of Pbx recruitment, (b) demonstrating that unique Hox-PBC interaction modes can provide specific regulatory function in absence of DNA-binding selectivity.To achieve this project BiFC was also performed with vertebrate Hox proteins in chicken embryos.Project 3: Realization of a candidate interaction screen based on BiFC to identify novel Hox protein partners in vivo(a) We have revealed that Hox proteins establish specific interactions with different subunits of the general mediator complex. These results constituted one of the rare studies making a direct link between the Hox regulators and components of the basal transcriptional machinery, in a physiological context.(b) We have discovered that Hox proteins can interact with importin proteins. This result allows us to assess the importance of controlling the nuclear localization of Hox proteins for controlling their regulatory activities during embryogenesis.

Current drugs used to treat Congestive Heart Failure target the renin-angiotensin and adrenergic systems. Studies showed increased mortality rates in patients treated with a combination of these medications. Angiotensin-AT1 and ?2-Adrenergic receptors were shown to form receptor heteromers. Blockade of one receptor in the complex can affect the signal transmitted by the other; suggesting that ligand-based therapy is not as selective as we might think. Modulating receptor trafficking after synthesis might prove to be a valid therapeutic strategy. Unfortunately, little is known about receptor assembly and transport from Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plasma Membrane. The objectives of this study are to identify the proteins that participate in the assembly of AT1R-?2AR heteromer and the regulators of the anterograde trafficking of G-Protein Coupled Receptors. This thesis introduces the role of important targets in those poorly understood processes. The identification of such targets could lead to developing better drugs with fewer adverse effects.

Dynein is a minus end directed molecular motor required for numerous cellular processes during intracellular transport and mitosis. Pac1/LIS1 and Bik1/CLIP-170 are two proteins required for targeting dynein to cytoplasmic microtubule plus ends in budding yeast. The lab previously proposed a model whereby Pac1/LIS1 binds to the motor domain of dynein heavy chain, Dyn1/HC, forming a complex that interacts with the +TIP protein Bik1/CLIP170 at plus ends. This project focused on using Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) to visualize protein-protein interactions among dynein pathway components in vivo. Budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an ideal system to manipulate dynein as it is a non-essential protein in this system. The BiFC assay fuses two non-fluorescent halves of Venus, a YFP-derivative, to proteins of interest. If an interaction between the proteins occur, the two halves are brought to close proximity and the fluorophore is reconstituted. Cells co-expressing Dyn1-VN with Pac1-VC or Bik1-VC exhibited fluorescent foci associated with microtubule plus ends, the cell cortex and spindle pole bodies (SPBs). Additionally, cells co-expressing Pac1-VC with Bik1-VN exhibited fluorescent foci associated with microtubule plus ends. Cells coexpressing Tub1-VC and Bik1-VN or Dyn1-VN have BiFC signal indicating that both interact with the microtubule directly. Pac-1 coexpressed with Tub1 had no signal above background. These data support that these three components associate at microtubule plus ends. Dyn1 and Pac1 interact with Bik1 at microtubule plus ends. Bik1 serves as a docking platform for the two, but dynein is still able to interact with microtubules, while Pac1 is not.

L'ubiquitylation des protéines est une modification post-traductionnelle qui joue un rôle capital dans la régulation des nombreuses fonctions cellulaires, y compris la croissance cellulaire et la prolifération. Les dysfonctionnements de ce mécanisme sont à l'origine de diverses maladies telles que le cancer par exemple. Le processus d'ubiquitylation implique une série des réactions enzymatiques en cascade, catalysées par une famille des enzymes, structuralement très proches. Cette famille est composée des enzymes activateurs d'ubiquitine (E1s), des enzymes de conjugaison d'ubiquitine (E2s) et des ligases d'ubiquitine (E3s). Les interactions entre E2s et E3s sont dans le centre de la cascade d'ubiquitylation. Une combinaison particulière des pairs E2/E3 va déterminer le type de chaînes d'ubiquitine qui seront attachées à la protéine d'intérêt pour ensuite déterminer la fonction régulatrice de la voie d'ubiquitylation. A ce jour, seulement une petite fraction de paires possibles entre E2 et E3 a été investiguée par des approches biochimiques et in vitro. Cependant ces approches ne reflètent pas forcément des conditions qu'on trouve dans une cellule vivante. Prenant ceci en considération, les principales objectives de ma thèse seront comme suit : identifier et optimiser une méthode de détection et de quantification des interactions E2/E3 dans une cellule vivante de la levure de boulanger (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ; construire une bibliothèque de souches de la levure qui permettrait d'établir des interactions entre E2 et E3 ; chercher de nouvelles potentielles paires E2/E3 ; caractériser fonctionnellement une potentielle paire E2/E2. Il est difficile de trouver une méthodologie appropriée afin d'étudier les interactions entre E2 et E3 parce qu'ils sont relativement faibles et transitoires. Leurs études nécessitent donc des techniques de détection avec une grande sensibilité. Parmi différentes techniques nous avons testé et choisi la complémentation bimoléculaire de la fluorescence, BiFC. Kurtosis, une mesure permettant localiser et quantifier la fluorescence BiFC-spécifique. Nos résultats nous nous avons permis à identifier 117 putatives paires E2/E3 parmi quels, 23 paires ont été déjà décrit dans la littérature. Parmi 94 nouvelles paires, certains E3s interagissent avec seulement une seule E2 ou d'autres donnent un signal BiFC avec plusieurs E2s. Ubc13, Ubc1 et Ubc4 sont les E2s qui interagissent le plus souvent. Nous avons identifié aussi une interaction entre les protéines Asi1 et Asi3 et les enzymes de conjugaison d'ubiquitine Ubc6 et Ubc7. Asi1 et 3 sont connus de former un complexe Asi1/3 sur la membrane intérieure du noyau impliqué dans la réponse de la cellule aux acides aminés extracellulaires. Ces protéines contiennent un domaine RING caractéristique pour les ligases d'ubiquitine mais cette activité n'était pas démontrée auparavant. / Protein ubiquitylation is a post-translational modification that plays a crucial role in regulating many cellular functions, including cell growth and proliferation. Defects in this control mechanism cause cancer and other diseases. The ubiquitylation process involves a cascade of enzymatic reactions catalyzed by a family of structurally-related enzymes, namely ubiquitin activating enzymes (E1s), ubiquitin conjugating enzymes (E2s) and ubiquitin ligases (E3s). Interactions between E2s and E3s are in the centre of ubiquitylation cascade and it is a combination of particular E2/E3 pairs that determine what types of ubiquitin chains are made, thus determining the regulatory functions of the ubiquitin pathway. To date, only a small fraction of all possible E2/E3 pairs have been investigated, mainly using biochemical and in vitro approaches that may not accurately reflect the conditions that occur in living cells. We aimed to develop a method capable of detecting specific E2-E3 interactions under physiological conditions. Using budding yeast as a model organism, we found that the Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) enables sensitive detection of the well described Ubc4-Ufd4 pair under endogenous conditions. The assay is specific since the interaction signal is lost in yeasts expressing Ubc4 mutants truncated in its E3 interaction domain. We then used this system to further analyze the physiological network of E2 and E3 enzymes in living yeast. We performed a microscopy screen to assay all interactions between eleven E2s and 56 E3s. Our results show that approximately 20% of all E2/E3 combinations give a detectable BiFC signal. Few E3s interacted only with a single E2, whereas most E3s produced a BiFC signal with multiple E2s. Ubc13, Ubc1 and Ubc4 were found to be the most frequently interacting E2s. Our results match many examples from current literature but we also detected 94 new E2/E3 interactions, in particular we identified an interaction between the proteins Asi1 and Asi3 and E2s Ubc6 and Ubc7. Asi1 and Asi3 are known to form a complex (the Asi1/3 complex) at the inner nuclear membrane and are involved in the regulation of the response to extracellular amino acids. The Asi1/3 complex was suspected to function as a ubiquitin ligases because they contain a RING domain, but this has previously not been demonstrated. We therefore further characterized them functionally.

No description available.

Le facteur ULTRAPETALA1 (ULT1) est impliqué dans plusieurs processus développementaux chez Arabidopsis thaliana, dont le maintien de l'homéostasie des méristèmes aériens et la morphogénèse florale. ULT1 est en particulier essentiel à la restriction du territoire d'expression de WUSCHEL (WUS), acteur central du maintien de l'identité des cellules souches. ULT1 est également déterminant dans l'activation spatio-temporelle d'AGAMOUS (AG), gène clé du développement floral, nécessaire à la croissance déterminée de la fleur. Néanmoins les mécanismes moléculaires impliqués dans le fonctionnement d'ULT1 n'ont pas tous été élucidés, notamment la nature de ses partenaires protéiques lui assurant sa spécificité de liaison à l'ADN. Les objectifs du travail de thèse ont été (i) d'identifier de nouveaux interacteurs d'ULT1 et (ii) de caractériser la fonction moléculaire et développementale de l'un d'entre-eux. Par des approches génétique, moléculaire et biochimique, nous avons identifié le répresseur transcriptionnel ULT1 INTERACTING FACTOR 1 (UIF1) et caractérisé sa fonction dans le contrôle de l'activité du méristème floral chez Arabidopsis thaliana. UIF1 est en particulier capable de lier spécifiquement une séquence promotrice du gène WUS. Par cette étude nous apportons un mécanisme pour la reconnaissance spécifique de ses cibles par ULT1. Par une approche gènes candidats, nous avons identifié de nouveaux interacteurs d'ULT1, pouvant expliquer (i) son effet sur le retrait de marques chromatiniennes maintenant un locus inactif (interaction avec la déméthylase RELATIVE OF EARLY FLOWERING 6); (ii) sa fonction trithorax activatrice (interaction avec ARABIDOPSIS TRITHORAX LIKE I); et enfin (III) son rôle dans l'initiation de la transcription de gènes cibles (interaction avec le domaine C-terminal de l'ARN Polymérase II). Ces données positionnent ULT1 à l'interface entre dé-répression chromatinienne et initiation transcriptionnelle. / The ULTRAPETALA1 (ULT1) factor is involved in several developmental processes during Arabidopsis thaliana life cycle such as the homeostasis maintenance at aerial meristems and floral morphogenesis. In particular, ULT1 is critical to the restriction of the expression territory of WUSCHEL (WUS), a central player in stem cell maintenance. ULT1 is also essential for the spatio-temporal activation of AGAMOUS (AG), a key floral developmental gene necessary to flower determinate growth. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms through which ULT1 functions haven't all been solved yet, including the nature of its protein partners assuring its binding specificity to DNA targets. The objectives of this thesis were (i) to identify new ULT1 interactors and (ii) to characterize the molecular and developmental function of one of them. By genetic, molecular and biochemical approaches, we identified the ULT1 INTERACTING FACTOR 1 (UIF1) transcriptional repressor and characterized its function in the control of floral meristem activity in Arabidopsis thaliana. In particular, UIF1 is able to specifically bind a promoter sequence in the WUS gene. With this study we provide a mechanism for specific recognition of target genes by ULT1. By a candidate gene approach, we identified novel ULT1 partners, which may explain (i) ULT1 effect on removal of chromatin repressive marks that maintain a locus in an inactive state (interaction with the demethylase RELATIVE OF EARLY FLOWERING 6); (ii) the ULT1 activating trithorax function (interaction with ARABIDOPSIS TRITHORAX LIKE I); and finally (iii) ULT1 role in the transcriptional initiation of target genes (interaction with the C-terminal domain of RNA Polymerase II). This dataset reveals a function for ULT1 at the interplay between chromatin de-repression and transcriptional initiation.